Rafael (final draft)

Introduction

This dissertation examines the displacements of the mourning process onto cultural objects, such as a work of art. The interpretation of the mourning process and its displacements in art will be explored using psychoanalytic theoretical frameworks. The objective is to examine how the utilisation of cultural objects, such as art, facilitates individuals in navigating their mourning process. The research seeks to investigate the therapeutic ramifications of the mourning process being supplanted by the use of cultural objects created by individuals and their capacity to produce artistic expressions as a method of mitigating the pain of loss. The research seeks to elucidate the role of cultural objects as transitional objects during mourning and to identify some narcissistic defences manifested in the cultural objects.

The domain of mourning is an extensive subject examined in psychoanalytic literature. Consequently, a prevalent argument indicates that the mourning process is a gradual and evolving period (Freud 1917) during which an individual experiences a sense of loss, not only from the object lost but also from the self, as noted by Nimroody (2014). This period involves the individual “testing” reality to understand the new surroundings devoid of the lost object. Freud (1917) posits that mourning entails the decathexis of the libido from the lost object, then reallocating it to a new object, so allowing the ego to become liberated and unencumbered in embracing new objects upon the absence of the previous one. Klein (1940) asserts that a mourning process encompasses not only the loss of the present object but also the earlier interior objects, which are subsequently lost again during the mourning process.

Chapter 1 of this study commences with a literature review that synthesises psychoanalytic perspectives regarding the manifestation of mourning and its displacements in cultural objects. Furthermore, it utilises an object relations framework to analyse the current literature about the displacement of mourning and the utilisation of cultural objects by individuals.

The examination of psychoanalytic literature regarding mourning and its displacements begins with Sigmund Freud's 1917 paper, Mourning and Melancholia, in which he asserted that mourning is an individual's reaction to the loss of a cherished person or the absence of an abstract concept such as freedom, an object, or an ideal. He contends that mourning entails significant deviations from the conventional outlook on life, enabling the individual to confront the loss. Moreover, the ego attains liberation and spontaneity upon the completion of the mourning phase, enabling the capacity to embrace a new object. However, if the mourning process remains incomplete. In this scenario, the individual is unable to accept a new object and views oneself as insignificant and encumbered by self-blame, which can be construed as a manifestation of the individual's ego. Freud termed this extended duration of profound mourning as melancholia, distinguished by insomnia and aversion to sustenance. Klein (1940) asserts that the mourning process in adults parallels an infant's mourning for the mother's breast, which symbolises love, goodness, and security in the infant's psyche. Post-Freudian advancements in the concept of mourning shifted towards the notion of an adaptation time to a new environment devoid of the beloved object. Pollock (1961) asserts that when a lost object acquires psychic significance alongside its functional role, the adaptive process entails, in part, a dissolution of the prior adaptive equilibrium formed with that object and the gradual reformation of new relationships with present realities. Furthermore, Wolfenstein (1966) contends that an individual's inability to embrace a new object and recognise the truth of loss signifies the ego's profound reluctance to relinquish the libidinal attachment to the lost item. One method to preserve the reality of loss is through the utilisation of cultural objects, such as art. Freud (1920) asserts that individuals have an innate need to seek pleasure and evade misery; for example, the creation of art or engagement with it represents an individual's effort to reclaim what has been lost.

Kernberg (2010) asserts in contemporary psychoanalytic literature that grief can induce a lasting transformation of psychological structures. The structural ramifications of mourning involve the establishment of a lasting internalised object relationship with the lost object, which influences ego and superego processes. Nacu (2019) asserts that the issues of separation, individuation, and the establishment of one's own mental space, evident in the mourning process, describe how a child mourns the primary objects of early childhood. Houlding (2015) posits that reality testing represents the infant's initial interaction with others, wherein their capacity to exert control over others is regarded as constrained. Giffney (2021) asserts that cultural objects can function as vessels for individuals' emotions. She contends that the utilisation of cultural objects, referred to as culture-breast, parallels the infant's experience of engaging with the mother's breast. This signifies an endeavour to perceive the absence of the original entity, observable in an individual's mourning process.

This section will examine Winnicott's concept of transitional objects and their possible fetishisation by the individuals in the context of using cultural objects, such as art, to alleviate the anguish of loss. The section will elucidate how mourning and its displacements are perceived in cultural objects as narcissistic states imposed upon them.

Winnicott (1971c) asserts that an infant selects an object, typically a piece of fabric or a teddy bear, as a defence against anxiety stemming from maternal separation. This object also serves to facilitate the comprehension of the internal and external realms during the initial experience of loss, such as the separation from the mother’s breast and comfort. According to Freud (1917), the selection of an object pertains to the attachment of libido to a particular individual. Nevertheless, Greenacre (1970) posits that the transitional object represents not just the mother’s breast and body but also the complete maternal environment, as it is experienced alongside the infant’s bodily sensations. Conversely, Bollas (1978) asserts that interaction with a transitional object transforms self-experience. Consequently, an adult seeks to visit the theatre, museums, and scenic landscapes in pursuit of aesthetic experiences. This indicates that individuals perceive themselves as agents of transformation and may endow themselves with the ability to modify their surroundings. The quest for an object that assists an individual in coping with the sense of loss may lead to the fetishisation of that object. Conversely, Greenacre (1970) asserts that the fetish emerges when the transitional object typically loses its functional significance. Freud (1927) posits that the connection between object choice and fetishism serves as a substitute for the penis, representing the mother's penis that the newborn is reluctant to relinquish. Nonetheless, there exists a lack of understanding regarding the absence of a penis in women, and fetishism serves as an alternative manifestation of the dread of castration. Walsh (2013a), referencing Winnicott’s characterisation of the transitional object, distinguishes the transitional object from the fetish object. The first relates to the necessity of a beneficial illusion, while the second addresses 'the hallucination of a maternal phallus', leading to pathology. Wulff (1946) posits that the fetish, particularly in early children, serves as a surrogate for the maternal body, specifically the maternal breast. The literature review indicated that the concept of fetish extends beyond mere sexual pleasure. Balint (1935) asserts that persons may only be accurately termed fetishists if they require solely a fetish rather than a sexual partner, and if their sexual behaviour does not aim at the act itself. The relationship between the transitional object and the subject is characterised by a "secretive" and discreet bond, resulting in most children, later as adults, refraining from sharing this connection, which may lead to the fetishisation of the object. Freud (1908) posits that adults experience shame regarding their fantasies, as they conceal them from others while valuing them as deeply personal, exemplified by the creation of art that reflects the artist's grief and attachment to a lost object.

The quest for self-identity through cultural objects to alleviate the pain of loss may result in excessive reliance on these objects, leading to their fetishisation and the projection of narcissistic defences onto them due to the fear of separation. Freud (1914a) asserts that narcissism, according to Näcke's clinical language, pertains to how individuals regard their own bodies similarly to how they regard the bodies of sexual objects. Post-Kleinian theory, akin to Segal et al. (1991), understands Freud's notion of narcissism as the individual's connection to their own body as a sexual object. Freud (1914a) posits that narcissism occurs when an individual retracts desire from the external environment and redirects it towards the ego. In contemporary psychoanalytic literature, Gossman (2019) asserts that the core of narcissism is a disconnection from one's own self. This approach departs from the notion that narcissism is solely associated with sexual objects. Narcissism, characterised by estrangement from the self, compels the individual to project the self onto external objects as a strategy to alleviate the anguish of separation and the anxiety of castration. Consequently, numerous persons may employ cultural objects, either by creating or merely utilising them, to mitigate the anguish associated with the mourning process. Kohut's (2009) idea of narcissism examines individuals' anxieties of object loss, the loss of affection from the object, and castration anxiety, prompting them to project the self into the artwork.

This paper delineates a qualitative descriptive study that employs theoretical research and case studies as its principal research methodologies. The objective is to focus on topics that have been inadequately explored or are missing from the current literature. This report delineates and analyses three research aims to accomplish this aim: (1) The initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork (2) How the transitional object is fetishised by the individual and (3) Narcissistic states in cultural objects, such as artworks.

Chapter 2 endeavours to address these knowledge deficiencies by synthesising many study domains, including psychoanalysis. Chapter 3 of this study analyses clinical cases from the psychoanalytic literature, employing the three research objectives as a framework to investigate the clinical implications of our hypothesis. Both chapters endeavour to illustrate the disparity about the utilisation of cultural objects as a method for alleviating the anguish associated with the loss of loved objects. The study does not concentrate on the capacity to produce art during times of mourning or suffering, a topic extensively addressed in psychoanalytic literature. The objective of the research is to elucidate the understanding of the excessive utilisation of cultural objects to assist individuals throughout periods of mourning when displaced by those individuals.

In terms of the author's own interest in the research, the author, as a psychoanalytic psychotherapist in training on the adult strand, finds the concept of mourning intriguing as it encapsulates the initial experience of loss in an individual's life and illustrates how the relationship with the primary carer influences one's navigation through the mourning process. As a professional, the author has not proficiently engaged in the psychoanalytic psychotherapy domain; however, it afforded the opportunity to examine the management of object loss and the evolution of the mourning process across many situations. As an individual, the author has developed an interest in the concept of mourning, believing that a sense of loss is inherent to life. Observations of individuals in both personal and professional contexts at this sensitive era have piqued the author's interest in researching the subject. The author had a positive encounter with a parental figure who exhibited the capacity to grieve a significant loss while also thriving in life. The author believes it is an opportune moment to investigate the various methods individuals employ to cope with feelings of loss.

Chapter 1 – Literature Review

This chapter aims to delineate divergences and convergences in the available literature, thereby elucidating how individuals and artists effectively express their experiences of loss through their artworks or the relationship with artistic expressions. The process of mourning is intricate and may occur throughout an individual's life, whether because of the loss of a parent at a young age or the loss of significant entities such as a marital relationship or an ideal career. How the individuals experience the initial losses in life and how they grieve them will determine their relationship to other objects. By observing these relationships with culture and art, the aim is to present that the relationship with cultural objects can be seen as unhealthy or healthy to support the individual to cope with the loss.

The breadth and depth of research on the topic is extensive, and comprehensive coverage is beyond the scope of this paper. Due to that, this research has the objective to direct attention to areas that help to think psychoanalytically about how the mourning process is seen in the individual’s relationship with artwork.

The distinction between mourning and melancholia, along with the transference into the displacement of cultural objects.

This section explores the concepts of mourning and melancholia through Sigmund Freud's paper "Mourning and Melancholia" (1917). Freud's work examines the roles of mourning and melancholia within an individual's ego, providing a critical foundation for understanding these emotional states. Furthermore, the research delves into Melanie Klein's pivotal idea of the breast and its importance in the psyche of infants, which adds depth to psychoanalytic discussions surrounding introjections and projections. These concepts are relevant not only in individual psychology but also in the analysis of cultural objects, as articulated by Noreen Giffney.

Freud (1917) conceptualises mourning as an individual's response to the loss of a loved person or the absence of an intangible concept such as freedom, an object, or an ideal. He argues that mourning involves profound departures from the typical attitude to life, allowing the individual to experience the loss. Furthermore, the ego becomes free and uninhibited once the mourning process is accomplished, providing the capacity to adopt a new object. However, suppose the mourning process is not fully completed. In this case, the individual cannot embrace a new object and perceives themselves as worthless and burdened with self-reproach, which can be interpreted as the individual’s ego. Freud referred to this long period of deep mourning as melancholia, characterised by sleeplessness and refusal of nourishment. This refusal of nourishment can represent the ego’s incapacity to adopt a new object and the lack of capacity to cope with the experience of loss. Freud claimed that one of the factors necessary for achieving mourning is the ego's capacity to detach the libido from the object. This detachment from the lost object is accomplished through reality testing. Wolfenstein (1966) argues that the individual’s incapacity to adopt a new object and acknowledge the reality of loss represents the ego's strong unwillingness to abandon the libidinal attachment to the lost object. Based on Pollock's (1977) findings, a person who is grieving may avoid facing reality and instead hold on to the lost object or ideal by denying its absence or even experiencing hallucinations. This behaviour keeps the absent object or ideal alive in the person's mind.

Houlding (2015) argues that reality testing is the infant’s first encounter with others, and their ability to control others is perceived as limited. Klein (1940) posits a connection between the testing of reality in normal mourning and early processes of the mind. According to Klein, the infant’s sensation of loss is connected to their perception of losing the mother’s breast and the milk. The infant sensation of losing the mother is experienced as their uncontrollable destructive fantasies and impulses against the mother’s breast. According to Klein (1946), the infant’s destructive impulse initially focuses on the primary object, which in this case is the mother’s breast, through oral-sadistic phantasy attacks. This experience elicits persecutory fears in the infant, resulting in the belief that the infant is robbing valuable contents of the mother's body and leaving the mother’s breast in bits. Due to these infants’ destructive fantasies, the breast can be felt as a good and bad breast, whereas the good breast would be the gratifying breast, remembering the gratification of love feelings. A bad breast is understood as a frustrating breast that contains states of frustration, hatred, and persecutory anxiety. As discussed by Klein (1959), the splitting process is one of the initial actions of the ego process of projection and introjection, which occurs from the very beginning of life after birth. Introjection refers to the process by which an infant incorporates external experiences and situations into their inner reality, perceiving them as part of their own self, such as the good breast. On the other hand, the infant’s persecutory feelings are projected towards the mother’s breast, and if they are introjected as a frustrating breast or bad breast, it will damage the perception of their self. Furthermore, the simultaneous projection involves the infant's capacity to attribute their different emotions, particularly love and hate, to other individuals. Klein (1946) mentions that splitting off parts of the self and the projection into external objects, such as the mother, is considered a vital experience for normal development and normal object relations.

So far, the previous section has discussed how the experience of loss in early infancy impacts the infant’s relation to other objects. However, according to Nacu (2019), the process through which a child mourns the loss of objects in early childhood is crucial in shaping the individual's mental and emotional development, particularly with issues of separation and individuation. Nacu (2019) suggests that how a child navigates these experiences can significantly impact their ability to form healthy relationships and establish a strong sense of self. Considering how the child mourns the loss of objects, it can be transferred to a transitional object, which will support the child to understand the self in the environment. This concept can be seen in the artist’s manifestation because the artist can benefit from the object's function to elaborate on the loss and relive the object internally.

Klein (1940) would say that when an adult experiences grief, they are reliving their initial experience of mourning, which is the loss of the mother's breast. Whether the experiences are good or bad, these initial experiences will be relived and projected into the outside world. An explicit form to analyse and comprehend the concept of splitting, especially in adults, can be identified through artistic expressions, such as paintings, films, music, or literature. Considering this, it is possible to classify them as cultural objects.

Cultural objects exemplify the understanding of an individual's relationship with the experience of loss. In her book The Culture-Breast in Psychoanalysis (2021), Noreen Giffney describes how the infant perceives the breast as an uncontrollable object and a painful reminder of dependence and need. Giffney (2021) also mentions that the breast is fundamental in psychoanalytic discourse because it is a metaphor to represent the environmental context and provision, an external stimulus, and a psychical operation for projections and introjections. However, according to the infant's perception, the breast is a part object of the mother, and the infant reduces the mother to her breast functions. According to Klein (1946), the infant's attacks extend to the mother's body because the infant perceives her body as an extension of the breast, even before the mother is conceived as a complete person. Furthermore, Giffney (2021) defines culture-breast as the psychical use of cultural objects. The cultural object is the experience of how the individual perceives the world. Cultural objects can also be assimilated as containers, where the artwork can contain the individual’s perception of the world. Many artists who experienced early losses in life can project their mourning into the objects produced by them. The artist's portrayal of loss through art acts as a vessel for the artist's own experience of loss, offering a tangible representation of their effects. This allows viewers to connect with the artwork visually, empathise with the artist's expression of loss, and find their own personal connections within the artwork.

Considering the individual's attacks on objects, Abram (2021) conceptualises that an object's survival is intricately linked to its destruction by the subject. This idea posits that a cultural object, such as a work of art, manifests the artist’s experience of loss and serves as a means for them to cope with that loss. According to Abram (2021), destruction is a fundamental force, and for an object to endure, it must withstand the destructive tendencies of the individual interacting with it, even from infancy. Another example of how an individual interacts with other objects from the object loss is discussed by Lawrence Warick and Elaine Warick in their discussion about Edvald Munch's art. Warick et al. (1984) conceptualise that in some pathological grief reactions, it is possible to observe that an individual can be attached to a photograph or a beloved item from the deceased as a form to recreate the image of their lost love object. Warick et al. would call this a “linking object”. This linking object can be identified in many artworks when it is known that the individual is still in a profound mourning process.

In summary, much of the psychoanalytic literature focuses on an individual's experience of mourning and how it manifests in their psyche and daily life. However, additional research is needed to enhance our understanding of mourning, particularly concerning how it can be displaced into cultural objects. This includes the phenomenon of individuals fetishising these objects as transitional objects to help them to cope with their loss.

The distinction between the Transitional Object and the Fetish

It is essential to examine the relationship between cultural objects and Winnicott's hypothesis of transitional objects. Furthermore, it is crucial to analyse how artists' creations of objects may signify fetishism. This section will elucidate the difference between the transitional object and the fetish by examining Winnicott’s concept of the transitional object in conjunction with Freud’s theory of fetishism.

Winnicott (1971b) conceptualises the idea of infants utilising an object to support them in holding on to the anxieties and fears of losing their mother. However, the object is to help the infant to comprehend the self and not the self. The object is called the transitional object, which supports the infant in ‘navigating’ between two worlds, the internal and external worlds. However, before using an object, the infant, after being born, tends to use the fist, fingers, and thumbs to stimulate the oral erotogenic zone to satisfy the instincts at that zone and in a quiet union. After a few months, the infant will demonstrate an interest in playing with dolls or other objects that the mother allows them to play with. It is possible to notice that after a while, the infants will become ‘addicted’ to a chosen object. Usually, the object chosen by the infant is a soft material type, which could be a teddy bear or a piece of cloth, like a napkin or handkerchief, that can be sucked and held, followed by babbling or the first musical notes. Most of the time, the infant utilises the object to go to sleep as a defence against anxiety, especially anxiety of the depressive kind. Winnicott (1971c) considers this experience of manipulating the object, which can get dirty and smelly, as a transitional phenomena. An excerpt from Kelley’s notion of his art concerning dolls effectively encapsulates the child’s feelings in response to a selected transitional object, as well as the parents' perspective seeing the bond between the transitional object and the infant.

"To parents, the doll represents a perfect picture of the child - it's clean, it's cuddly, it's sexless, but as soon as the object is worn at all, it's dysfunctional. It begins to take on characteristics of the child itself – it smells like the child and becomes torn and dirty like real things do. It then becomes a frightening object because it starts to represent the human in a real way, and that's when it's taken from the child and thrown away." (Kelley, 1991, as cited in Walsh, 2013a, p. 117)

Walsh (2013a) references Kelley's concept of dolls to exemplify the perception of transitional objects by both parents and children. However, if it is withdrawn from the infant, it can dysregulate the child's psyche, which relied on the object to cope with separation from the mother. If the mother tries to clean the object by washing it, a break might occur that will destroy the meaning and value of the object to the infant. Along with this experience, Winnicott (1971b) mentions the importance of reality testing, an intermediate state between a baby’s inability and the growing ability to recognise and accept reality. Furthermore, Winnicott (1971b) posits that the illusion allows infants to create objects. In adult life, it is inherent in art and religion. However, if this illusion is forced on others who do not share the same illusion, it could be considered the hallmark of madness.

Winnicott (1971a) posits that in the clinical setting, individuals often have a deep yearning to connect with their authentic selves. They seek to navigate and understand their identities by expressing their creative experiences, whether through art, music, writing, or other forms of self-expression. However, Winnicott (1971c) mentions the individual’s capacity to relate to an object. For an object to be related to the subject, the object needs to survive the destruction provoked by the subject. For instance, the object must be authentic in the sense of being part of a shared reality and not just a bundle of projections. Projection mechanisms and identification will be part of the operation. However, the subject must need to find itself in the object. Furthermore, the capacity to use an object indicates the maturational process provided by a facilitating environment. This means the object is found in the world instead of being placed by the subject. According to Abram (2021), the infant relates to objects as a mother’s protection against how demanding the infant is. However, this relation to objects is an ego protection to allow the infant to adapt to being out of the womb. This experience of taking the object is unconscious and must happen in a good enough environment. The experience supports the infant's comprehension that the mother is a separate other, although becoming more aware of it demands time and space.

Freud (1917) suggests that object choice is related to the attachment of libido to a specific person. In his 1927 paper "Fetishism", Sigmund Freud posits that fetishism denotes an object choice wherein an individual forms an atypical connection to a particular object. This attachment is often experienced as a symptom of psychological distress and is accompanied by feelings of suffering. Freud (1927) posits that the relationship between object choice and fetish is a substitution for the penis, which is the mother’s penis that the infant does not want to give up. Nevertheless, there is an unawareness that the woman does not possess a penis, and fetishism is another form of demonstrating the fear of castration. However, the fear of castration can be understood further than the fear of phallus’ loss. The castration can be perceived as a general fear of loss. For example, an infant will use an object to replace the mother’s breast. According to Winnicott (1971c), this object will support the infant in overcoming the anxieties and fears of losing the mother. However, the object is to help the infant comprehend the self, not the self, which means the internal and external world. Because the fetish is unknown to other people, the individual does not disclose it and has easy access to it, where sexual satisfaction is attached to it. Freud (1908) says adults are ashamed of their fantasies because they hide from the other and cherish them in their most intimate possessions, such as producing a work of art that represents the artist’s loss and attachment to the lost object.

The subsequent section discusses the extended use of a transitional object, particularly in early childhood. However, if an adult consistently relies on such an object, it may suggest that this behaviour falls into the realm of fetishism. The individual might not openly admit to using the object and may develop a strong attachment to it. This could be interpreted as a need to relive internal experiences tied to an object that they perceive as lost.

According to Greenacre (1969), the fetish and the transitional objects are both inanimate objects that an individual adopts and utilises to aid in the maintenance of a psychophysical balance when encountering stressful conditions. The fetish is typically an object that provides a sense of security and comfort. In contrast, the transitional object, as described by Winnicott, serves as a bridge to the external world and helps in the separation-individuation process in early childhood. These objects play a significant role in providing emotional support and stability during times of distress or anxiety. Also, Greenacre (1969) posits that the use of the transitional object seems to be prolonged and serves as a fetishist need. On the other hand, Wulff (1946) suggests that fetishism may be linked to the oral fixation that develops after weaning. This fixation is believed to be associated with the act of sucking before sleeping and is thought to be related to the representation of the mother's breast or body.

Losing access to a mother’s breast is a profoundly traumatic experience for an infant, serving as the initial encounter with mourning that shapes the individual's emotional development. According to Laplanche et al. (1967), trauma is a personal event that happens to an individual, which can be dated and has significant importance due to the unpleasant effects it can trigger. Due to that, many individuals might use art expressions to reveal the experience of internal loss.

In essence, when considering Winnicott’s idea of the transitional object, it is possible to identify that using an object such as a painting or literature can support an individual in comprehending loss and the significance of that loss to the individual. However, if the individual persists in reproducing the same object many times, it may be identified as a repetition intended to demonstrate what has been forgotten. Because according to Freud (1914b), the individual repeats the forgotten in his behaviour without knowing what has been repeated.

Narcissistic states in cultural objects, such as artwork

The preceding sections have examined the mourning displacements evident in artistic works of art and the potential fetishisation of the transitional object when the typical mourning process is disrupted. This section seeks to delineate the mourning process and its expressions in persons via cultural objects. It also explores Freud's discourse on narcissism and its implications in conjunction with contemporary psychoanalytic literature perspectives. Additionally, the section analyses Freud's pleasure principle and its manifestation in the artistic experience of spectators. This part also introduces the notion of the capacity of creativity and examines how artists experience a sense of loss that drives them to explore that loss in their artwork. This drive to revisit the experience of loss may be construed as narcissism, which is discussed as an urge to feel alive again and the fear of separation evoked by the loss. The contemporary psychoanalytic literature posits that the pleasure and rejuvenation of the self, construed as narcissism, is perceived as the alleviation resulting from a complete release followed by sexual arousal. It is essential to thoroughly examine the narcissistic states depicted in artwork to understand the ego investment as a defence mechanism for mitigating the sensation of object loss, rather than merely representing sexual desire.

According to Freud (1920), the pleasure principle is a primary mechanism of the mental apparatus, serving as a means of self-preservation for the organism amidst the challenges of the external world. Furthermore, Freud (1920) posits that under the influence of the ego’s self-preservation instincts, the pleasure principle is replaced by the reality principle. This means the ego’s secondary processes, such as perception, thinking in word presentation, memory, reality testing, and control of motility. Based on the reality principle, Freud (1911) suggests that art unites the pleasure and reality principles. According to Freud, an artist initially turns away from reality because they are unable to forgo their instinctual satisfaction, which demands and allows the fulfilment of erotic and ambitious wishes in the realm of fantasy. However, the artist can return to reality from this world of fantasy by utilising their special talents to transform fantasies into a new kind of truth that others appreciate as valuable reflections of reality. Nevertheless, it is only possible because other individuals share the same artist’s dissatisfaction with reality, and because of that, the results stem from the replacement of the pleasure principle by the reality principle. Freud (1908) conceptualises the creation of a fantasy world by comparing a creative writer to a child at play. This analogy suggests that the writer constructs a serious fantasy world filled with intense emotions distinctly separated from reality. The primary disparity between the child at play and the writer lies in the use of language. Acknowledging the crucial role of language in fostering creativity and articulating mourning or loss, Khan (1973) asserts that language embodies the ego’s capacities of both patient and analyst to attentively create a space for illusion in the analytical setting. Language transcends mere recollection, reporting, or listening; it serves as a medium for creativity and profound expression.

Winnicott (1971a) emphasises the importance of space and creativity, asserting that cultural experience exists in the potential space between the individual and the environment. Early life experiences heavily influence this capacity to perceive space. When observing an artist's expression, it's important to consider Winnicott's (1986) idea that living creatively is a universal need, and there is no special requirement. Living creatively strengthens the feeling of being alive and true to ourselves. Because of the individual’s necessity to feel themselves alive, the individual tends to project their libido towards other external objects with the purpose of finding themselves through others. Considering the individual’s necessity of imposing oneself on others, Smith (1988) posits this omnipotence is a result of narcissism.

Furthermore, Gosmann (2019) says the main issue with narcissism is the state of losing touch with oneself, as the ego tries to compensate for the loss of self through a negative identification and positive projection into an object that the individual perceives as ‘good’. Even though the individual is not conscious that the object does not exist anymore, the relation to object loss represents returning to the ego. However, the individual tries to relate to a new object to diminish the sense of loss and create a sense of continuity of self in the new object. Freud (1914a) posits that the individual libidinal cathexis back to their ego implies a narcissistic withdrawal of the libido away from any new object attachment that is referred to as object-libido. This withdrawal of the libido is perceived as melancholia. Artists express that they are not forgetting or letting go of precious aspects of the lost object because they perceive themselves as part of it. Smith (1988) refers to Freud’s concept that identification with the lost object is a pathogenic factor driven by the drive for separation and autonomy in melancholia. Also, one of the main reasons for narcissism is the prevention of the progression of separation. Segal et al. (1991) interpret Freud’s concept of narcissism as the individual's relationship with their own body as a sexual object. In contrast, Segal also notes that Klein refers to the retreat from reality toward an idealised internal object as “narcissistic states”.

So far, this section examines the individual's relationship with a work of art as a coping mechanism for object loss. Nevertheless, contemporary psychoanalytic literature indicates that the connection with artwork and its impact on the individual does not demonstrate the creation of narcissistic emotions as a reflection of the individual’s internal conflict in processing grief. The research lacks a comprehensive analysis of narcissistic tendencies as expressions of individuals’ elaboration of loss. It solely presents the viewpoint of the impairment caused by narcissism in individuals, neglecting to consider the narcissistic expression as a means of mourning to mitigate the anguish of loss. The next section presents literature that outlines the succinct notion of narcissistic disorders observed in persons, along with a conclusion of the psychoanalytic literature review highlighting a possible deficiency in the representation of narcissistic states within artistic expressions.

According to Han (2017), one of the narcissistic maladies is depression (melancholia), which derives from an overwrought, pathologically distorted self-reference. Han (2017) posits that the narcissistic-depressive subject has exhausted itself and worn itself down, which leads to a feeling of being abandoned by the other. This experience forces the subject to plunge into itself; on the other hand, Eros pulls the subject out of itself toward the other. Eros provides the possibility to experience the otherness of the other, which leads the one out of a narcissistic inferno. Considering Han’s idea of Eros as a salvation to the subject from the self-reproach and lack of nourishment, the artist tries to convey the experience of loss by creating objects. In alignment with Han's thesis, Kohut (1966) asserts that narcissistic cathexis originates from the notion of an idealised parental imago, imbued with object-libidinal cathexes, and the idealised attributes are cherished as sources of fulfilment to which the child clings resolutely. However, if the psyche is deprived, a source of innate enjoyment will not acquiesce to the loss but rather transform the object imago into an introject. The libidinal cathexis will be directed towards the child's ego. This approach parallels an individual who engages with an artwork to alleviate the anguish of loss and invests their identity in the piece.

In summation, it is vital to identify whether the creativity reflects a repetition of what the artist has forgotten regarding the value of the lost object and whether they strive to internally resurrect the object by immersing themselves in its production. This may result in narcissism and an impingement to move forward to adopt new objects. Although Freud’s definition of narcissism entailed more the sexual fulfilment as the individuals invest their ego in other objects. However, the research demonstrates that the narcissistic states are not simply a sexual arousal, but also, they represent the individuals’ libidinal cathexis into other objects as ways of coping with losses. Due to that, new artistic creations typically resonate with others, prompting sentiments of identification. Although the artwork is not designed to evoke any identification, it allows emotional release as individuals engage with it. Nonetheless, the artistic expressions may contain characteristics of the individual who develops it, and the spectators may be identified with it because the spectators may invest their ego in the work of art. Additionally, other scholars investigated narcissism as the manifestation of the fear of separation and not related to the libido invested in the ego. According to Smith (1988), narcissism is the primary focus of psychoanalytic inquiry about the essence of the 'I', encompassing concepts such as self, ego, and identity, referring to the experiencing subject. Thus, the research can examine the expression of narcissistic states in connection with artistic manifestations, utilising Kohut's (2009) concept of narcissism to analyse individuals' fears of object loss, the loss of affection from the object, and castration anxiety, which leads individuals to transpose the self within the artwork.

Chapter Summary

This chapter has investigated the relationship between mourning and its displacements into cultural objects, like art. The chapter also examined how the disruptions in the mourning process manifest in the transitional objects and the associated potential ‘symptoms’, including narcissistic states. The work of art was identified as a possible means for emotional release, facilitating a cathartic experience.

Based on the discourse around the topics addressed in the literature review, three distinct research objectives have emerged. The first research objective is to examine the mourning displacements into cultural objects. The literature review indicated that disruptions in the mourning process may hinder individuals’ capacity to adopt new objects. Although cultural objects may assist them in navigating their mourning process. The second research objective is the fetishisation of the transitional object. This indicates the identification of excessive and prolonged use of the transitional object by the individual. The third research objective is the narcissistic experience via cultural object. The discussion indicated that the sensation of loss may elicit a fear of separation in the individuals, prompting them to project their emotions onto external objects, such as cultural objects. This may be construed as a narcissistic state stemming from the inability to confront object loss and the compulsion to evade the discomfort associated with the pain of loss. These individuals may utilise art as a medium to express their emotions, aiding them in the mourning process.

Chapter 2 – Theory and Research Objectives

This chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the subjects discussed in chapter 1 to fulfil the established research objectives. The domains of mourning, transitional objects, and narcissism are expansive fields of inquiry that are ever developing. The first research object is the initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork. To provide insight, a definition of mourning is required and how the displacement in the objects is perceived by the current psychoanalytic literature. The second research objective is the transitional object fetishised by individuals. This suggests that when a person employs a work of art akin to a transitional object, as observed in children, to alleviate the pain of loss, excessive involvement may lead to the fetishisation of the cultural object. The third and final research objective elucidates how narcissistic states manifest in the relationship with art and are perceived as a medium to release emotions, while also addressing the challenges encountered by individuals who have positioned themselves as self-idealised objects. This may cause an impingement in interactions with external objects. The objectives will be analysed to comprehend the correlation between the mourning process and its enactments via cultural objects.

First research objective: The initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork

This section begins by outlining the concepts of mourning and melancholia as delineated by Freud (1917), highlighting that a natural mourning process is advantageous for individuals, allowing the ego to be liberated and facilitating the adoption of new objects. Nevertheless, other scholars, such as Melanie Klein and Noreen Giffney, were used to elucidate the discourse on the displacement of mourning, particularly in relation to cultural objects.

The psychoanalytic literature suggests that Freud discussed the topic of mourning prior to his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. Freud initially discussed the mourning process in the essays on Totem and Taboo (1912-13), asserting that mourning has a distinct psychical task which aims to detach the survivors' memories and aspirations from the deceased. Upon achieving this, the pain diminishes, accompanied by a reduction in remorse and self-reproach. In January 1914, Freud presented his paper on mourning and melancholia to Ernest Jones and presented it to the Vienna Psycho-Analytical Society on December 30th of that year. Several authors speculate that Freud’s exploration to discuss the mourning process is connected to Jung’s resignation from psychoanalytic associations, suggesting that Freud’s formal conceptualisation of mourning may have stemmed from his grief over Jung’s loss and the significance Jung held for him. Freud (1917) asserts in his concluding paper about mourning and melancholia that mourning is typically a response to the loss of a cherished individual or an abstract concept, such as fatherland, freedom, or an ideal. On the other hand, melancholia is characterised by significant mental features, including deep despondency, withdrawal from the external world, inability to experience love, suppression of all activity, and a decline in self-esteem that manifests as self-reproaches and self-denigration, ultimately leading to a delusional expectation of punishment. One reason the mourning process functions is when the individual withdraws the libido from the object which no longer exists. This indicates that the ego has regained its freedom and spontaneity, thereby restoring its capacity to embrace a new object. Freud (1917) contends that the retraction of libido is not an instantaneous process but rather one that, akin to mourning, unfolds slowly and progressively. Pollock (1961) asserts that the cathexis of new objects is not inherently a component of the mourning process but rather a measure of its level of resolution.

Psychoanalytic literature suggests that creativity in the creation or adoption of a new object frequently occurs in the setting of mourning. The individual will attempt to re-experience the affects linked to the object loss through a new external object, in this case through a work of art. The mourning process mostly evokes the earlier experiences of separation from the mother and the anxieties attached to it. Because of that, the mourning process is painful; however, the degree of suffering will be dependent on the initial reactions to object loss that the individual faced as an infant. This concept is grounded in Klein’s (1940) theory regarding the relationship between the reality-testing in normal mourning and early processes of the mind. The external reality, devoid of object loss, is faced by the reality principle articulated by Freud (1911). This indicates there is a consciousness of the external world independent of the absent object, which is observed and recalled. Pollock (1961) asserts that an ego that has matured to perceive reality and distinctively discriminate objects will mourn differently than an ego that is poorly integrated and immature. The individual experiences the mourning due to the loss of an object that was previously cathected, and through this process, the ego is developed.

An individual creating artwork to convey their mourning can be observed to have the ego functioning under the pleasure principle. This indicates, according to Freud's (1911) hypothesis, that the psychical activity retracts from any event that may induce displeasure with the objective of attaining pleasure. Nonetheless, the individual’s primary motive in creating the work of art is to alleviate suffering, and through this creation, the aim is to discharge the libido into a new object that aids the individual in processing the loss of the original object. The creation of artwork may serve as a means to mitigate the anguish of loss; however, as Deutsch (1937) asserts, attempts to escape the pain of grief yield only a transient benefit, as the imperative to mourn remains ingrained in the psychic apparatus. Conversely, Freud (1916) contends that the aesthetic and ideal qualities of a work of art or intellectual accomplishment should not diminish in value due to its time constraints. However, the worth of this beauty and perfection is solely dictated by its relevance to our emotional experiences, rendering it unnecessary for survival beyond our existence and thus independent of absolute duration. Bollas (1978) posits the aesthetic moment embodies a profound rapport between subject and object, granting the individual a creative illusion of harmony with an object, thereby eliciting an existential memory. Existential, in contrast to cognitive memory, is expressed not through visual or abstract thinking but through the affects of being. Nonetheless, Pollock (1961) asserts that the retention of the object as a figure that can be addressed and visualised, along with the denial of its demise, obstructs the mourning process. On the other hand, Sharpe (1930) posits that ‘excellent’ art serves a self-preservative role. The individual endeavours to produce an artwork to exert control over the object, signifying the intention to mould it. It clearly demonstrates the individual’s omnipotence, ignited by the intolerable pain of loss. This omnipotence arises from the internalised object and the individual’s thoughts of destructiveness regarding the perceived object loss. Sharpe (1930) asserts the artist creates the art to externalise the hostile parent which was internalised at the oral level. Consequently, the artist creates the artwork to externalise the hostile image and to exert control over it.

The previous section has outlined the mourning process, the genesis of artwork, and its earliest displacements. This section outlines the work of art, categorised as cultural objects, and their interpretation through psychoanalytic literature, referencing Klein’s theory on the infant’s perception of the mother’s breast and Giffney’s concept of the culture-breast. This latter refers to the individual’s relationship with cultural objects.

Giffney (2021) asserts that cultural objects, such as art, serve the function of a breast. She articulates this concept through the notion of culture-breast, which interprets the breast function in accordance with Melanie Klein's theory and defines it as the psychical use of cultural objects made by the individuals. Klein (1946) posits that the infant’s oral-sadistic impulses directed at the mother’s breast are active from the beginning of life. These impulses during times of frustration and anxiety are exacerbated, and the infant may perceive the mother’s breast has been left in bits. This indicates that the splitting mechanism is established, which will split the breast between the good and bad breast, corresponding to gratifying and frustrating breasts, respectively. Klein asserts that the splitting mechanism is among the earliest ego mechanisms and defences against anxiety, wherein love is directed towards the gratifying, while states of frustration, hatred and persecutory anxiety are associated with the frustrating breast. Because of these destructive impulses felt by the infant towards the mother’s breast, the other ego’s primary aim of overcoming anxiety is linked to the introjection and projection mechanisms. This means the infant will introject the good breast and project its persecutory parts onto the mother. However, the breast serves also as a reminder of its uncontrollable nature to the infant and the infant’s dependence and necessity of it.

Giffney (2021) posits that the culture-breast operates as a part-object within the psyche, with external cultural objects employed for introjections and projections, an unconscious process that starts in childhood and persists into adulthood. Additionally, it involves the engagement with and interpretation of cultural objects. Cultural objects serve as a narrative for holding the projections of unbearable experiences that the mind cannot consciously endure. The psychical use of cultural objects can be likened to the mother’s breast function. Nonetheless, Giffney also notes the cultural object functions as a container for the individual. This indicates the cultural object is projected through projective identification, wherein the individual projects their experiences onto the cultural object (such as writing a book or reading a poem). The object absorbs and processes the overwhelming aspects of the experience, subsequently presenting it to the individual in a transformed manner that can be re-introjected by the individual in a tolerable way. On the other hand, another way to mourn and ‘give up’ the breast is creating new objects, such as art. According to Segal (1981), the symbol formation, which is possible in art creation, is the outcome of a loss. This signifies a creative act including both the pain and the entirety of mourning. She also states that when psychic reality is perceived and distinguished from external reality, the symbol is separated from the object; it is regarded as a creation of the self and can be utilised freely by the self.

In essence, the mourning process is a gradual and painful process that individuals undergo, which can be alleviated by engaging with cultural objects as a means of adopting new objects. However, excessive utilisation of the cultural object renders the process of mourning unhealthy. The individual utilises cultural objects just to display their persecutory anxiety and the painful idea of no longer experiencing object loss. The individual is attempting to re-experience the object rather than allowing for the restoration of the previously internalised object. Nimroody (2014) posits that creativity serves as a sublimatory endeavour, facilitating the expression and reconfiguration of grief through the remembrance of the deceased, in stark contrast to a rigid, stereotypical form of creativity characterised by repetitive actions aimed at mitigating painful affect, which permits minimal constructive mourning of the loss.

Second research objective: How the Transitional Object is fetishised by the individual

The subsequent section will examine the correlation between transitional objects and fetishism, particularly in regard to artwork, with a specific emphasis on the theories of Donald Winnicott and Sigmund Freud. This section intends to discuss the fetishisation of the transitional object in art by adding the perspectives of other authors to support the research.

According to Winnicott (1971c), the transitional object is the infant's initial encounter with an object perceived as a 'not-me' possession. This object signifies a segment of the external environment that exists beyond the infant. The intriguing feature is that the infant may fabricate the object from an ordinary piece of fabric, such as a blanket. The formation of the object enables the infant to traverse between the internal and external realms. Wright (2009b) asserts that the transitional object is a subjective component of the infant that symbolises the recollection of earlier experiences with the mother. Wright notes that individuals invest themselves in the object and subsequently recognise their identity via it, rendering the object significant to them. The relationship with the transitional object is crucial to the infant as it facilitates the development of the ego and the sense of self, which has the capacity to transform the infant’s internal and external worlds. Bollas (2018) refers to the capacity for transformation as the transformational object. Bollas posits that an adult individual seeking the transformational object aims to recollect an early object experience, not through cognitive means but existentially – via profound affective experience – associated with cumulative transformational experiences of the self. Considering this concept, one may argue that an individual, particularly an artist, attempts to elicit and convey the experience of ego memories related to transformations while creating a work of art. The artist seeks not just to effect change via the creation of art but also to represent their internal world and affects. Bollas (1978) posits that the quest for the transformational object constitutes an interminable remembrance pursuit for an entity in the future that is rooted in the past. The individual endeavouring to produce a cultural object, such as a painting, seeks to depict their internal world and their relationship to the object and unconsciously aims to evoke earlier life experiences, particularly those involving the primary carer, typically the mother. This creation assists the individual in traversing the feeling of loss. The attempt to create an object that represents the earlier experience with the primary carer usually is evoked when the individual suffers a loss, for instance, a loss of a loved one.

Coulter (2016) posits that when considering the artist's expression, the artist must have a sense of reality, a connection to their inner experiences, and an engagement with the materials used in their artwork. Additionally, the artist should infuse their work with deeply personal emotions encompassing both the ‘ugly’ and the ‘beautiful’. According to Segal (1981), the artist is not focused on creating beautiful or aesthetically pleasing forms. Instead, the artist is engaged in re-creating a damaged internal world, and the quality of the resulting form will depend on how successfully the artist accomplishes this task. Most of the artist’s creations pertain to the process of mourning or the experience of an object loss; hence, the artist prioritises the emotional impact of the final piece over its aesthetic qualities. This piece serves as an auxiliary object to internalise the object experience and as a medium between the artist and the viewer. Wright (2009a) posits that the art object serves as a conduit between two distinct subjects. Although the artist’s primary drive may have been self-restoration, the artwork ultimately transcends this self-contained objective and serves as a medium for significant connection with others.

Taken into consideration the individual’s creation of an object, and particularly the relation to the object, Winnicott (1971d) in The Use of an Object and Relating Through Identifications discusses the individual’s capacity to relate to the object. In Winnicott’s perspective, the object-relation facilitates specific alterations in the subject’s self, referred to as ‘cathexis’. The object acquires meaning, and the mechanisms of projection and identification function, allowing the subject to be located within the object. However, Walsh (2013a) posits that the object in use is, in a sense, cleansed of projections, allowing the subject to perceive it as a genuine object rather than as a reflection of oneself.

So far, the transitional object has been discussed as an object that helps the infant to create the initial sense of relatedness, especially with the support of an object that resembles the relation to the mother. The cases discussed were based on experiences of a ‘good-enough mother’. This means the primary carer’s active adaption to the infant’s needs, which lessens gradually according to the infant’s growing ability. Nevertheless, the subsequent section will discuss the cases when the transitional object was ‘created’ based on a ‘not good enough mother’s’ experiences, characterised by a deprivation of nurturing and an inability to tolerate frustration. Even with ‘good-enough mothering’, there exists an opportunity to tolerate frustration, which is essential for ego development.

Freud (1927) posits that the choice of a fetish results from a sexual impression frequently seen in early childhood, serving as a substitute for the penis, specifically the woman’s penis or mother’s penis, of which that is oblivious to the mother’s lack thereof. Furthermore, Freud says the fetish is also associated with the fear of castration and serves as a defence against it. Greenacre (1969) asserts that the transitional object and fetish diverge in their correlation with aggressiveness. The transitional object highlights a transient construct that assists the infant in the initial phases of development, fostering a sense of reality and the formation of individual identity. It is beneficial for tracking growth and expansion. Conversely, the fetish acts as a remedy for a deficiency in the genital area of the body image. The fetish is fundamentally associated with the castration anxiety and the quest for the maternal penis. However, in cases of fetish in young children, it can be represented as a substitute for the mother’s body, and particularly the mother’s breast. Volkan (1972) asserts that childhood fetishism serves as a pathological defence against maternal separation at pre-Oedipal stages and may or may not culminate in adult fetishism. Conversely, Balint (1935) contends that an individual can only be deemed a fetishist if they do not require a sexual partner but solely a fetish and if their sexual activity is not aimed at the act itself.

Walsh (2013a), drawing on Winnicott’s description of the transitional object, differentiates the transitional object from the fetish object. The first pertains to the essentiality of a healthy illusion, whereas the second concerns ‘the delusion of a maternal phallus’, which results in pathology. Greenacre (1970) also draws a differentiation between the transitional object and the fetish object. Greenacre asserts that the transitional object symbolises not just the mother’s breast and body but also the entirety of the maternal environment, as it is perceived in conjunction with feelings from the infant’s own body. Nonetheless, if there exists a disrupted relationship with the mother, resulting in delayed individuation, the infant will exhibit precocity and independence, culminating in the emergence of an infantile fetish. This means the fetish is the product of a need for reparation. The artist aims to produce a tangible artwork that serves as a readily accessible reminder of the object's intrinsic vitality. This might be likened to fetishism, as the fetish object serves as a reminder of the maternal phallus and the enjoyment of revisiting earlier sexual experiences, including thumb and breast sucking, as well as the manipulation of body parts during infancy. Freud (1905) posits that all children are polymorphously perverse, indicating that sexual pleasure extends beyond the genitals.

Walsh (2013b) posits that the connection to fetishism constitutes a symbolic process within the unconscious, characterised by an excessive investment in an object, primarily through visual means, particularly photography, due to its capacity for analogical fixation and preservation of an object, individual, or scene that is now temporally distant. However, Adams (2013) asserts that the fetish as a sexual object represents a displacement from one object to another, rather than a substitution for an internalised absent object. It is essential to recognise that the objective of the artist, or a ‘regular’ individual, in making art is often an unconscious effort to sublimate the sensation of loss, which entails an attempt to restore the lost object or achieve restoration, so alleviating the anxiety. However, upon completion of the artwork, the individual may overly utilise the piece to mourn the loss, thereby transforming the object into a fetish.

In summary, Winnicott defines the transitional object as an object, such as a blanket or teddy bear, that an infant adopts from available objects to support in navigating between ‘me’ and ‘not-me’ and to tolerate the separation from the mother, and which is progressively decathected. This experience will assist the individual in retaining memories of the transitional object without repression, which proves beneficial later in life when faced with deprivation. However, when the excessive use of a newly adopted object, such as a work of art, is seen in cases that the individual utilises as a form to grieve, it may be considered a fetish. Nonetheless, Sperling (1963) contends that the pathological mourner, who excessively utilises objects, is analogous to the child who excessively used the transitional object in childhood, which elicited a type of childhood fetish.

Third research objective: Narcissistic states in cultural objects, such as artwork

The subsequent part intends to present Freud's notion of narcissism, building upon the concepts previously articulated by Havelock Ellis and Paul Näcke. Freud's concept of narcissism derives from the term Narzissismus, coined by Näcke, which reflects on Ellis' interpretation of the Narcissus figure and its connection to autoeroticism. Freud originally credited the term narcissism to Paul Näcke; however, in a footnote added in 1920 to Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), he acknowledged his error and stated that the phrase should have been given to Havelock Ellis.

Prior to exploring Freud's notion of narcissism, it is essential to comprehend the origin of the term. Narcissus is included in a poem within the narrative of Echo and Narcissus, found in Book Three of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Narcissus contemplates his reflection in the river as Echo, his admirer, observes. Narcissus, offspring of the river deity Cephissus and the naiad Liriope, was believed to possess a prolonged lifespan provided, if he refrained from observing his own reflection. Ellis (1927) asserts that the image of Narcissus was inherently intended to symbolise the self-absorption of young individuals who had not yet experienced romantic love for another of the opposite sex. Ellis suggests that the idea of Narcissus represents a mental disposition that might be described as autoerotic and notes that the term narcissism originated from Paul Näcke, with whom Ellis corresponded, who coined the German term Narzissismus to denote the auto-erotism outlined by Ellis. Gossman (2019) posits that Narcissus’s fundamental issue, and thus the essence of narcissism, is the state of being estranged from oneself.

Freud (1914a) posits that the term narcissism, derived from Paul Näcke’s concept, refers to an individual’s disposition to regard their own body in the same manner as one would regard the body of a sexual object; specifically, the person derives sexual pleasure from observing, caressing and fondling their own body, culminating in complete gratification from these actions. For Freud, the notion of narcissism pertains to the withdrawal of libido from the external world, redirecting it towards the ego. Another issue that may cause an individual to forfeit interest in external matters is organic pain and discomfort. Freud (1914a) posits that the afflicted individual retracts libidinal cathexes onto their own ego and subsequently redistributes them upon recovery. This approach pertains to the concept of the ego ideal, which Freud (1914a) suggests is analogous to the infantile ego that embodies all perfections. The emergence of the ego ideal occurs when an individual's libidinal development experiences disruption, prompting the individual to select themselves as a love object, rather than the mother. Freud (1914a) posits that those who regard themselves as a love object exhibit a sort of object choice classified as narcissistic. The development of the ideal amplifies the demands of the ego and serves as the primary catalyst for repression. On the other hand, sublimation provides an avenue through which the ego's wants can be satisfied without resorting to repression. Freud (1914a) posits that sublimation is a process related to object-libido, wherein the impulse redirects itself towards a goal distinct from, and distant from, sexual enjoyment. Freud (1915) asserts that repression entails the diversion of some thoughts or memories, keeping them distant from consciousness. Nevertheless, Sharpe (1930) contends that art is a sublimation grounded in the fundamental affinity with one's parents. This identification represents a mystical integration of the parents, a psychical occurrence that parallels long-repressed experiences. For example, the destructive attacks on the mother’s breast. Klein (1946) discusses these destructive attacks as being associated with the infant's sense of omnipotence. Nonetheless, Kohut (1966) posits that the idealisation of the parental imago is a direct extension of the child's initial narcissism, with the cognitive representation of the idealised parent evolving alongside the child's cognitive development. Moreover, Freud (1914a) asserts that idealisation is a process pertaining to the object, whereby that object is magnified and elevated in the mind without any change to its inherent nature.

The previous section sought to elucidate the origins of narcissism as articulated by Freud. This indicates a withdrawal of the individual's libido from the external world, redirecting it towards their inner ego. Nevertheless, the individual has idealised an ego ideal that embodies all perfections and has also idealised the parental figure. The art was briefly mentioned as reflecting a narcissistic stance, stemming from the idealisation of the parental figure. The following part will examine the concept of narcissism and its association with artistic expressions.

Freud (1911) asserts that art enables a distinct reconciliation between the principles of pleasure and reality. On one side, an artist is an individual who eschews reality due to an inability to forgo the instinctual satisfaction that the creation of art necessitates, thereby permitting the unrestrained expression of the erotic and ambitious desires within the realm of fantasy. Conversely, the artist utilises unique talents to find the way back to reality from the world of fantasy, demonstrating the truth of a new kind, which is esteemed by others as a valuable representation of reality. For instance, Freud (1908) posits that a creative writer engages in activities like those of a child at play. The writer constructs a realm of fantasies, investing substantial emotions, yet distinctly distinguishing it from reality. However, an individual in a narcissistic state lacks the capacity to see external reality since it has been constructed as a self-sufficient realm. These persons may encounter challenges in establishing a healthy relationship with cultural objects, such as art. If these persons are producing artwork, they may express only the aspects of themselves with which they are at ease, reflecting an idealisation of their ego. This encapsulates Freud's (1920) concept of the pleasure principle, which pertains to individuals' evasion of discomfort and the pursuit of pleasure. The individual’s relationship with art, such as creating or using it, can be interpreted as an enactment of earlier life experiences that the individual needs to work through. For instance, artistic expressions may manifest a narcissistic state as a portrayal of the ideal parent. This seeks to establish an alternative relational dynamic with the parent when the original relationship was dysregulated or disordered. Consequently, the creation of art or the engagement with cultural objects signifies the individual’s ego ideal striving to establish a more constructive and enduring connection with the parental image. When an individual withdraws libido from several objects and concentrates it solely on one object, such as a work of art, it might disrupt the individual’s perception of the exterior world. Freud (1912) interprets this coercive imposition of the self upon external objects, termed omnipotence, as a manifestation of narcissism. Smith (1988) contends that Freud’s concept of the narcissistic stage is evident in a child’s development due to the inherent narcissistic circumstances. Smith notes that omnipotence is not merely a byproduct; rather, according to Ferenczi, it represents an endeavour to reinstate narcissism. An effort to reinstate narcissism is suggested, as Balint (1960), drawing from Freud’s theories, concluded that there are two forms of narcissism: primary and secondary. The initial hypothesis posits that at the onset of life, all libido is concentrated within the ego or the id. The secondary effect is that the libido, previously invested in external objects, is retracted from them and instead invests in the ego. The research examines a scenario in which the individual’s libidinal cathexis in a piece of art as a form of idealised self-representation and as a technique to mitigate the anguish of loss, such as the death of a loved one. Leon (1999) asserts that death disrupts the integrity of the self. The consistency of an individual’s self-representation is fundamentally rooted in the early perception of a cohesive body. Death disrupts that coherence as the survivor must confront the physical breakdown of the departed. Due to the disrupted sense of self, individuals may seek alternative means to re-establish a cohesive identity, such as searching for photographs of the deceased that allow them to “see” themselves or producing new artistic expressions as a means to convey the self that was intertwined with the deceased. It is an endeavour to relive the affection for the lost object.

In summary, this section has sought to explore narcissism and its influence on cultural objects. The part indicated that the narcissistic individual may struggle to express their emotions owing to their self-idealisation. These individuals may appear theatrical and indifferent to their environment, suggesting that they have chosen them as object-choices to shield themselves from repressed feelings triggered by an object loss. Moreover, the research suggests that these persons may struggle to engage with cultural objects in a constructive way, thereby hindering their capacity to release their emotions. Although these individuals might seek to create or relate to art to avoid pain and pursue pleasure. However, the grandiosity exhibited by these individuals constrains their capacity to experience emotional release through the relationship with cultural objects.

Chapter Summary

In summary, the research findings indicate a correlation between the mourning process and its expressions through cultural objects, highlighting the excessive use of transitional objects, which may lead to fetishisation and manifestations of narcissistic tendencies during mourning that impede the emotional release evoked by the artwork. The initial section of this chapter examined the mourning process as a ‘normal’, prolonged and gradual process, facilitating the ego’s uninhibition to enable the capacity to adopt new objects. The chapter examined ‘the new object’ as transitional objects to be used as a mechanism for coping with the object loss; however, it was discussed that prolonged use of these objects may result in fetishisation by the individual. Moreover, excessive dependence on these objects, coupled with the ego’s incapacity to embrace new objects, may lead the individual to project their self-idealisation onto the cultural objects, thereby obstructing emotional release.

This chapter delineates that mourning displacements onto cultural objects, as coping mechanisms for loss, necessitate observation due to the potential for excessive use of these objects. Conversely, several authors contend that mourning can catalyse a creative process (Bollas 1978; Nimroody 2014; Sharpe 1930), with artwork serving as a manifestation of an individual’s internal life experiences, wherein destructive impulses from childhood may be projected (Klein 1940; Giffney 2021). In the psychoanalytic literature, the predominant concept of mourning is the process that enables the ego to feel liberated and unrestrained in its capacity to engage with external objects (Freud 1912-13, 1917). A severe mourning can result in melancholia, hindering the acceptance of new objects and the processing of object loss. The connection between mourning and other displacements, such as those onto cultural objects, is constrained.

Winnicott (1971c) posits that objects embraced by the infant might facilitate them to navigate between the internal and external worlds, to experience the sense of ‘me’ and ‘not me’, which were named as transitional objects. However, it is not identified as a technique for coping with the loss or the reflection of the infant’s experience of loss. The infant’s transitional object may be fetishised due to its resemblance to maternal tenderness and early instances of sexual excitation (Greenacre 1969, 1970; Sperling 1963; Wulff 1946). However, the discourse around the fetishisation of the transitional object is not very extensive, particularly in relation to artistic endeavours (Walsh 2013a). This also suggests that the discourse is limited by the potential for heightened self-idealisation reflected in the objects and the obstruction of emotional release.

The forthcoming chapter will present clinical case illustrations that integrate both clinical and extra-clinical materials. This investigation will focus on the potential displacement of mourning onto cultural objects and their relationship to an individual’s psyche. This approach means it does not merely serve as a means to ‘discharge’ the affects but also demonstrates that a work of art can act as a vessel for individual emotions and to demonstrate the quality of this relationship. In alignment with the psychoanalytic objectives of this paper, the theoretical frameworks proposed by Freud (1917) and Winnicott (1971c) will be employed, particularly their conceptualisations of the mourning process and transitional objects and their relevance to the goals of psychotherapy.

Chapter 3 – Cases Illustration

This chapter explores the therapeutic ramifications of the research, specifically investigating the potential transference of mourning onto cultural objects, as well as its other effects, including the fetishisation of transitional objects and the narcissistic dimensions that may facilitate cathartic outpouring.

This chapter will also include several clinical and non-clinical materials to exemplify the research aims outlined in preceding chapters. Nevertheless, the research objectives arose from the gaps in the current psychoanalytic literature, which, due to its paucity, made it challenging to identify case studies that address both mourning and its displacements in adult psychoanalysis.

The initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork

This section aims to illustrate the case of Mr. M., a professional musician in his thirties, who reported an inability to be spontaneous and to engage emotionally with those in his life without experiencing significant anxiety and distress. Alexander Stein (2004, pp. 14) analyses the clinical case, examining the patient’s relationship with music and exemplifying the concept addressed in the first research objective, which contemplates mourning and its displacements into cultural objects. Contemporary psychoanalytic literature will be presented to substantiate the discourse on the artwork as a medium of mourning expression.

According to the discourse in chapter 2, Freud (1917) asserts that a function of the mourning process is the withdrawal of libido from the object that is no longer present. This signifies that the ego has recovered its autonomy and spontaneity, therefore reinstating its ability to accept a new object. During mourning, an individual experiences the loss of an object and reacts to that loss; nevertheless, at times, an individual may feel compelled to externalise this loss onto other objects. A work of art serves as one platform for the externalisation of loss experiences. Consequently, one may assert that the fundamental motivation for numerous persons in producing art is to mitigate pain, and through this creation, the objective is to channel the libido into a new object that assists the individual in coping with the loss of the original object. The creation of artwork may alleviate the pain of loss and serve as a means to uncover what remains unconscious for the individual concerning the object loss. This signifies that the creation of a cultural object, such as writing a book or composing music, may embody the individual’s projective identification, in which the individual projects their experiences onto the work of art, which then assimilates and processes the overwhelming elements of those experiences, ultimately presenting them to the individual in a transformed format that can be re-introjected in a manageable manner.

Stein (2004) asserts that artwork serves as a means to alleviate the experience of loss or as a defence mechanism to avoid confronting it. He contends that music, within the mourning process, acts as an object of temporary identification, wherein the aesthetic reverie induced by listening fosters a fantasy that denies or disavows the painful reality of loss. Therefore, Freud (1901) posits that certain individuals recall experiences through visual imagery; their recollections possess a visual quality. Others can hardly recall even the most minimal visual traces of their experiences. In accordance with Charcot's approach, individuals are designated as auditifs and moteurs, in contrast to the visuels. On the other hand, Bollas (1978) posits that the aesthetic moment represents a deep connection between subject and object, providing the individual with a creative illusion of harmony with an object, which in turn evokes an existential memory.

In accordance with the notion of music in the mourning process, Stein (2004) offers a poignant example through his therapeutic work with Mr. M., a thirty-year-old professional musician who experiences profound frustration over his lack of ownership concerning his professional achievements, coupled with the awareness that he interacts with the world, especially with those near to him, through a lens of intense anxiety and affliction. Although he was trained as a jazz musician, akin to his father, he felt incapable of improvisation. He could effortlessly master any musical composition provided to him; nevertheless, when required to improvise, he would become incapacitated if he attempted to veer spontaneously from the score. He is neither alexithymic nor anhedonic; yet, he does not easily exhibit or acknowledge feelings of passion, enthusiasm, or anger. He recognised and conceptualised the potential for anger but conceded that the emotion itself is lacking. His ardent desire for emotional liberation and more spontaneity swiftly became the predominant metaphor of his therapy. As a musician, Mr M. communicated in a musical vernacular, yearning to transcend C major and incorporate unconventional jazz chords.

Mr. M.’s life has been profoundly influenced by his mother’s suicide when he was seven years old, as well as by the tragic limitations imposed on his mourning process due to the rapid reconfiguration of family dynamics following his father’s remarriage shortly after his mother’s death. Mr. M. vividly recalled the day of his mother’s death: after school, he was taken to a neighbour’s house, where he discovered his father weeping profusely. Stein (2004) describes Mr M.'s father as an undemonstrative, sarcastic, emotionally frugal, controlled, and inscrutable man. Upon witnessing his father weeping, Mr. M. instinctively reacted with uncontrollable and exuberant laughter. This moment was etched in Mr. M.’s mind as frozen, untouchable, and lifeless, evoking a sense of shame in him, as he recognised during his treatment that his laughter was profoundly inappropriate. Deutsch (1937) posits two causes for heartless behaviour exhibited after the death of a loved one. One factor is the cognitive incapacity to comprehend the reality of death, while the other is insufficient development of object relationships. In comparison to Mr. M.’s case, one may also reference Deutsch’s (1937) theory, which posits that children exhibiting the heartless phenomenon of indifference after the death of a loved one do so because their ego is insufficiently developed to endure the demands of mourning, thereby employing mechanisms of narcissistic self-protection to evade the process.

Mr. M. stated that the majority of his memories of his mother were unhappy. In his recollection, she was an excessively emotional, neurotic, and capriciously self-absorbed mother; these diminishing and adversely coloured memories constitute Mr. M.’s sole remaining connection to her. Over several years, Stein (2004) and Mr. M. examined the numerous unconscious implications of that historic, emotionally significant moment: his laughter was an outburst of unrestrained joy upon finally meeting an expressive father figure. An additional feature revealed in Mr. M.’s treatment was his professional choice as a musician and his relationship with music. Through Mr. M.’s treatment, it was evident to observe that music serves him as a manifestation of sorrow, fully encapsulating it both aesthetically and psychologically. The fundamental aspects of his significant traumas and unsolved conflicts from early life represent a common language with his father, from which his mother is excluded. Music embodies the profound anxiety of his inevitable misexpression. Nimroody (2014) asserts that creativity functions as a sublimatory endeavour, enabling the expression and reconfiguration of grief through the remembrance of the deceased, in sharp contrast to a rigid, stereotypical form of creativity defined by repetitive actions to alleviate painful emotions, which allows for limited constructive mourning of the loss.

In essence, the clinical case of Mr. M. presented by Stein (2004) clearly illustrates two facets of Mr. M.’s mourning process. Initially, one may reference Wolfenstein (1966), who asserts that researchers examining adult patients bereaved of a parent during childhood or adolescence have verified that manifestations of grief, acknowledgement of the loss’s reality, and emotional detachment from the deceased parent have not transpired. Mr. M. was unable to mourn his mother’s death as a child due to hasty familial adjustments, and he carried a sense of guilt for his laughter throughout his life. Secondly, as Freud (1917) asserts, the mourning process involves the ego’s capacity to detach the libido from the object loss and embrace new objects. Mr. M.’s treatment demonstrated his capacity to articulate his mourning through music while also providing an opportunity to examine his response to his lack of spontaneity and the significance of the music to him. Nonetheless, it is evident that Mr. M.'s obsessive engagement with the artwork serves as a refuge for his mourning, so precluding him from perceiving the music only as a form of creative expression. His incessant reliance on music hindered his capacity to feel spontaneous and seize opportunities to explore his potential, stemming from the fear of losing the objects, specifically his mother. Fleming et al. (1963) assert that an individual's defensive equilibrium necessitates the absence of any relationship with a new object, particularly one of a novel nature, as it would disrupt the protective illusion and compel the individual to confront the painful reality of parental death and to undertake the mourning process that has been successfully evaded until now.

On the other hand, according to Freud (1917), Mr. M.’s difficulty in adopting new objects and his relation to music can be interpreted as melancholia when the ego lacks the capacity to see the external reality and accept new objects. However, when an individual chooses to adopt a new object, their ego must possess the capacity to embrace the new object without the apprehension of losing the cherished object. Mr. M.'s case illustrates Giffney's (2021) notion that a cultural object can function as a container; in this instance, Mr. M. utilised music to encapsulate his emotions around his mother's death and facilitate his mourning process. The story illustrates that a piece of art serves not only as a manifestation of creativity but also as a conduit for expressing the unconscious, with the attachment to it revealing the extent to which it is a healthy coping mechanism for confronting object loss.

How the Transitional Object is fetishised by the individual

This section intends to present clinical and non-clinical materials, including the instance of a nine-month-old infant, described by Michael Wulff (1946, pp. 451), who developed a fetish for his mother’s clothing; Henry Lowenfeld’s (1941, pp. 1) case of a thirty-year-old female artist who fetishised her relationship with her artwork, who depicted her twin brother’s death; and Edvard Munch’s artworks that express his mourning for his mother’s demise and his pathological reactions to it. The materials offered aim to elucidate the second research objective, which examines how the person fetishises the transitional object. Current psychoanalytic material will be presented to justify the discourse on the fetishisation of the transitional object as depicted in artwork.

According to Freud’s (1927) concept of fetishism mentioned in chapter 2, the primary element of its response is sexual gratification and embodies the notion of a substitute for a penis, particularly the mother’s absent penis. Freud also posits that the fetish serves as a protection against the dread of castration. Current psychoanalytic literature indicates that fetishism cannot be only associated with sexual function and partners. Wulff (1946) contends that the fetish in early children serves as a surrogate for the mother’s body, specifically the mother’s breast. In contrast, Freud (1927) asserts that the selection of a fetish is a consequence of sexual impressions, typically acquired during early childhood.

To exemplify the concept of an infant selecting an object to replace the mother, it is essential to reference Winnicott’s idea of the transitional object. Winnicott (1971b) posits that a transitional object is an object selected by the infant, typically a teddy bear or a piece of cloth, which offers the initial opportunity to traverse between the internal and external worlds. The transitional object aids the infant in managing the anxiety triggered by the separation from the mother. During this phase of selecting a transitional object, an infant may fetishise it. Walsh (2013a) notes that Winnicott differentiates between the transitional object, associated with the healthy need for illusion, and the fetish object, linked to the delusion of a mother phallus.

Michael Wulff (1946, pp. 451) exemplifies the fetishisation of a transitional object through a nine-month-old infant who consistently clutched his mother’s worn stocking or brassiere to facilitate sleep. However, if the mother refused to provide the garments to the infant, he would erupt in fits of wrath. Despite the passage of two years, the mother continued to provide her stockings or brassieres to the infant, succumbing to her inability to withstand his anger, which perpetuated his fetish. When presented with freshly laundered clothing or garments formerly worn by his father, the boy would weep and exhibit frustration, leading his mother to conclude that the scent of the fetish was significantly linked to her body. Greenacre (1970) posits that a certain level of frustration may facilitate rather than hinder the process of individuation and enhance autonomous functioning. On the other hand, Bollas (2018) asserts that the mother is tasked with transforming the infant’s internal and external surroundings, which is regarded as the child’s ‘other’ self. Conversely, in a favourable context, Greenacre (1969) posits that the child autonomously selects one object based on personal requirements, subsequently exhibiting profound loyalty to it, rejecting alternatives, and displaying pain when this singularly coveted object is unavailable. Nevertheless, this early encounter with an object to mitigate maternal separation, which can be interpreted as the individual’s primary experience of loss, akin to mourning or the distinction between self and other, may lead some individuals later in life to select alternative objects to manage subsequent object loss when confronted with it. One method is to acquire cultural objects, such as a work of art.

The clinical case presented by Henry Lowenfeld (1941, pp. 1) illustrates the relationship between the transitional object and the fetish manifested in a work of art. The case exemplifies the psychoanalytic treatment of a female artist in her thirties who pursued treatment owing to escalating severe anxiety and diverse physical ailments, including confusion over gender identity and work-related inhibitions, over several years. Lowenfeld (1941) states that the woman engaged in both drawing and painting, having predominantly drawn from nude models, particularly female ones, throughout the early stages of her career. For several years, she created paintings that emerged from surreal visions and possessed a fantastical, enigmatic aspect. At the age of twenty-two, she abandoned this type of work and transitioned to commercial art. Challenges encountered in her work engendered a sense of inadequacy; she also experienced moods in which she felt notably talented and creative. Lowenfeld (1941) states that the woman had a sibling who was two and a half years older than her. She was a twin; the other child, a robust and handsome boy, succumbed a few months post-birth. The woman was informed that she was a small and frail child, and upon her birth, she was thrown on the floor and neglected as everyone attended to the second, larger child, resulting in a complicated delivery. The twin brother played a significant role in her fantasy. The woman noted that the older brother was favoured by both parents due to his intelligence and obedience, whereas she was perceived as belligerent and deemed intolerably disobedient by the entire family.

The interval from her seventeenth to twenty-second years was deemed her most artistically prolific, during which she engaged in a sexual encounter with an older man, subsequently followed by multiple lesbian partnerships. During that time, she engaged in multiple flirtations with men, remaining indifferent until she encountered the man she ultimately married. She claimed he was athletic and powerful, qualities that initially attracted her; nevertheless, throughout the years of their marriage, he displayed a more docile nature, while she adopted a more masculine and sadistic character. During this time, the woman has expressed the majority of her childhood memories through her artwork. The paintings typically had traits of masculinity and femininity, which she claimed were her own. At the age of twenty-one, a renowned clairvoyant said to her that she would meet her demise by insanity or suicide and cautioned her against excessive masturbation. Lowenfeld (1941) observes that the woman developed a practice of masturbating during nearly inebriated phases of artistic endeavour. She would press herself against the edge of her easel, which may be understood as her fetishisation of the transitional object. She utilised her paintings to convey aspects of her unconscious associated with childhood memories of feeling abandoned and unloved by her parents following the death of her twin brother after a few months of their delivery. However, following the clairvoyant’s prediction, she ceased masturbating, relinquishing a coping mechanism for her tensions, which subsequently contributed to the emergence of her neurosis, initially manifesting as withdrawal and restraint and then as episodes of anxiety. Despite experiencing anxiety, the woman consistently produced her artwork as a means of sublimation to articulate her childhood trauma. Freud (1914b) asserts that an individual reiterates what is not recollected as a method of processing and resolving it. In Lowenfeld’s (1941) case, the woman exhibits a compulsion to recreate her pain by painting male and female figures while concurrently fetishising it, which helped her to alleviate her sense of loss. Contemporary psychoanalytic literature, including Warick et al.’s (1984) analysis of Edvard Munch's artwork, which frequently depicts his mother as a means of resurrecting his own memories of her, who died when he was five years old, indicates that an adult experiencing pathological grief may utilise a transitional object to navigate the stress and challenges associated with the separation-individuation process between genders.

In essence, the woman utilised her drawings and paintings to articulate her fantasies around her twin brother’s death, which provided her the capacity to enable her mourning process. Her work of art expressed the ambivalence she experienced over her own body, at times identifying as a man and at other times as a woman. One can speculate that the male figure originates from her deceased brother, suggesting that she lacked the capacity to grieve until she commenced painting, primarily due to the immaturity of her ego. Nonetheless, she regarded her artwork as a means of understanding internal and external realities. Her work of art offered her solace, prompting her to fetishise it as a means of preserving her identity. Lowenfeld (1941) contends that the woman utilised art to project her ego through polymorphous transformations, so enabling the projection of her inner experiences into an imagined external reality. The conceived external world is perceived through identification and as a process of alternating introjection and projection. According to Bollas (2018), the quest for symbolic parallels and experience becomes a form of psychic prayer for the emergence of the transformational object: a secular second reincarnation of an object connection encountered in the earliest period of life. In Lowenfeld’s (1941) case, the woman utilises her artwork to initiate her mourning process, but it deteriorates into an inappropriate fetishisation of the transitional object, as shown during her analysis with Lowenfeld. Through the treatment, she gained insight into her relationship with her artwork and its application, resulting in the cessation of the fetish after several years of treatment.

Narcissistic states in cultural objects, such as artwork

According to the discourse in chapter 2, Freud (1914a) asserts that narcissism denotes an individual's tendency to perceive their own body akin to that of a sexual object; notably, the individual derives sexual pleasure from observing, caressing, and fondling their own body, ultimately achieving complete gratification from these behaviours. According to Freud (1914a), the concept of narcissism involves the retraction of libido from the external environment, diverting it towards the ego. It is important to note that the discourse on narcissism originates from a poem in the narrative of Echo and Narcissus, located in Book Three of Ovid's Metamorphoses, where Narcissus becomes enamoured with his own reflection in the river and is subsequently punished for this infatuation. The majority of psychoanalytic literature has interpreted narcissism as an autoerotic phenomenon. The narcissistic feature is mostly associated with a deficient ego that struggles to acknowledge external entities and tends to revert back to its own self. Narcissistic traits are more prevalent in individuals during the mourning process, as the concept of object loss may hinder their capacity to adopt new objects. Consequently, they often seek their own reflection in other objects as a means to alleviate the pain associated with the loss. An artwork has been recognised as a tool to assist individuals in navigating the mourning process; yet, some may develop narcissistic traits to evade confronting the separation caused by loss. A clinical case presented by Heinz Kohut (2009) will be utilised to exemplify the third research objective outlined in the paper. The case illustrates the individual's effort to alleviate the anguish of loss and to bring to awareness certain symptoms associated with a disrupted mourning process, as well as the unconscious elements linked to the fear of separation.

The case of patient Mr. E., reported by Heinz Kohut (2009, pp. 10, 15, 117-118, 130-132, 158-159, 173, 313-315), illustrates the connection between narcissism and art as a means of alleviating the anguish caused by object loss during the mourning process. Mr. E., a graduate student in his late twenties, sought therapy following the dissolution of his marriage; nonetheless, he disclosed a range of additional challenges, notably a propensity for various deviant fantasies and activities. The treatment of Mr. E. was conducted by a senior student at the Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis, with ongoing supervision from Heinz Kohut.

Mr. E. attempted to alleviate distressing narcissistic tension through various perverse methods, reflecting his inability to rely on any source of gratification. The inconsistency of superficially invested objects and the mutable nature of his sexual aspirations underscored his inability to commit to avenues he pursued for pleasure and reassurance. As the narcissistic transference evolved, it became evident that voyeuristic-exhibitionistic objectives significantly influenced his perversions, prompting him to seek gratification in this domain when he saw threats of rejection. The treatment elucidated that Mr. E's engagement with art served as a medium to articulate his unconscious struggles with processing past losses and the anxiety of losing a part of himself. Mr. E. was classified as an “incubator baby”, having been isolated from his mother for several months. His mother, afflicted with malignant hypertension, never experienced any emotional connection to the boy following his return home. He appeared seldom to have been chosen by anyone due to his perceived fragility. He was likewise repudiated by his father and never assimilated into the family. Despite these foreboding conditions, the patient's psychological organisation was not psychotic, and the fluctuations towards the collapse of his cohesive self-configuration that occurred throughout analysis were transient and manageable. He seems, for instance, to have successfully redirected his demand for tactile stimulation to the visual domain early in his existence. This transition, however, subsequently led not just to distorted voyeuristic behaviours but also to significant sublimatory opportunities inside the visual domain. The visual elements are linked to his mother's chronic illness and depression during Mr. E's upbringing, as well as her death when he was sixteen, which have fostered his anxiety about confronting the analyst. Nonetheless, the fear of looking at the analyst was interpreted as an embodiment of the need to be embraced and supported by the mother, and he feared that the realisation of this desire would result in the deterioration of the ailing mother. This notion parallels Klein's (1946) views of the infant's destructive attacks on the mother's breast, potentially resulting in a fragmented perception of the breast as either good or bad, and the omnipotence of being able to “destroy” the mother. Due to his affects regarding the fear of rejection, a critical occurrence during the treatment prompted Mr. E. to begin articulating his troubles via painting. Following a weekend apart from the analyst, Mr. E. depicted the analyst’s visage, substituting the eyes and nose with his own. This signifies the patient’s internalisation of the analyst, yet his fear of ‘losing’ his identity is manifested through the inclusion of his own features, reflecting his narcissistic tendencies. Following this experience and his advancements in analysis, it became evident that Mr. E. would employ artistic expressions as a rechannelling of his narcissistic cathexes, which had previously compelled him towards perilous voyeuristic behaviour. Kohut (2009) asserts that this voyeuristic behaviour developed in later childhood due to his mother's inadequate response to the boy's exhibitionistic impulses. When she had little interest in witnessing his display of ability on the swing at the fairground, he proceeded to the men's room and engaged in voyeurism. Nonetheless, Mr. E. possessed the capacity to leverage artistic expression to mitigate his apprehension of rejection and loss stemming from prior experiences before commencing analysis. Kohut (2009) contends that preexisting patterns are likely to be found in all patients who engage with artwork for narcissistic energy, as experimentation with creativity often transpires during adolescence. A notable quantitative difference occurs between individuals who abandon all interest in creative pursuits upon reaching maturity and those who continue to engage in them, despite emotional deprivation and inhibitions. In this case, Mr. E. continued to direct his narcissistic energy into deviant behaviours, such as voyeurism; however, after beginning his analysis, he successfully redirected this energy towards artistic expressions, which aided him in processing his mother's death and the lack of emotional support.

The preceding section examined Freud's concept of narcissism, its roots, and the implications for narcissistic defences. A clinical material was presented in which the patient's narcissistic feature was exemplified through a work of art, namely a painting. The case illustrated the artwork as a mechanism for managing feelings of loss, sublimating other needs, and expressing unconscious emotions. Furthermore, Frosch (2014) posits that narcissistic defences can be comprehended through the fundamental notion that they represent an unconscious desire to inhabit an alternate reality where mourning is superfluous, as nothing is ever forfeited. The next section offers a succinct non-clinical perspective on narcissism, particularly regarding the self-directed libido investment that may incite a drive for artistic and intellectual pursuits. The argument is based on Freud's examination of Leonardo da Vinci's creativity.

The narcissistic inclination in humans, especially as shown in art, is found in Freud's psychoanalytic biography of Leonardo da Vinci. Freud (1910) posits that creative pursuits, especially in individuals like Leonardo, may stem from a narcissistic libido investment in the ego. In Leonardo's case, he found fulfilment not in love or sexual endeavours but in his scientific discoveries, artistic excellence, and visionary brilliance. In Leonardo da Vinci’s case, art served not merely to express the anguish of loss; rather, he used his libido to generate and articulate repressed feelings through his intellectual and artistic endeavours. Gagnebin (2013) asserts that the primary objective of any artwork is fundamentally economic and cathartic. This denotes the location or status that provides the symbolic and transformative capacities of creators, resulting in “a spite of themselves”, which is also essential. It may be perceived as the creators’ narcissistic characteristics manifested in the artwork. The creators, by their creation, aspire to establish their own existence. In da Vinci’s instance, he chooses to channel his libidinal cathexis into creative endeavours, serving as a type of sublimation of his passions.

In conclusion, the cases illustrated exemplify the manifestation of narcissism in artistic works. In Mr. E.'s instance, it was evident that the dread of separation and castration anxiety enabled him to express his emotions related to his mother's death during his youth and provided an opportunity to understand his voyeurism. Leonardo da Vinci's situation serves as an illustration of the individual's compulsion to articulate unconscious emotions through creativity, indicating that engagement with art occurs not solely during the mourning process but also as a means of cathartic emotional release. It indicates that any loss affects the individual, who may seek solace in alternative objects, including cultural objects. This signifies the capacity to assimilate other entities; nevertheless, in the instances discussed, the individuals employed the artwork as a narcissistic defence mechanism against the fear of separation and castration anxiety, as well as for subliminal purposes.

Chapter Summary

This chapter utilised clinical and non-clinical information from psychoanalytic literature to elucidate the research objectives. Initially, Mr. M.'s case demonstrated how the mourning process might be interpreted through cultural objects, such as music. This case illustrates the displacements of mourning via a work of art as an endeavour to alleviate the anguish of loss; if the mourning process is interrupted or inadequately processed, the cultural object can assist the individual in traversing the period of object loss.
Secondly, the case of a female artist illustrates the excessive utilisation of cultural objects, such as paintings, during the mourning process, leading to fetishisation. Furthermore, the cultural object can be likened to the concept of a transitional object, as it aids the individual in navigating between internal and external realms. The fetishisation should not solely be viewed as a source of sexual gratification but also as a response to alleviate the anguish associated with loss throughout the mourning process through the passionate and obsessive engagement with the artwork. The fetishisation of the transitional object was examined as a consequence of the infant's attachment to it during early life. This indicates that the fetish may resurface in maturity in several manifestations, one of which is the excessive utilisation of cultural objects.
Thirdly, Mr. E.'s case illustrates that the cultural object employed in the mourning process, when excessively utilised, may also signify a narcissistic defence. This signifies the individual's fear of separation, elicited by the sense of loss experienced during the mourning process.
The upcoming section will discuss the research findings and their alignment with the offered clinical and non-clinical materials. Furthermore, specific limitations identified in the research will be examined through a comprehensive analysis of the displacement of mourning in cultural objects, along with the corresponding effects that individuals may exhibit or experience during the challenging process of grieving the loss of a cherished object.

Analysis and Discussion

Chapter 3 examined the clinical application of the idea regarding mourning displacements and its various aspects in cultural objects, including art. Clinical and non-clinical materials were analysed within the framework of the research objectives. In the following section, a comparative study will be done in conjunction with the contractions identified in Chapters 2 and 3. Additionally, the constraints of the research will be discussed.

The mourning process is a significant aspect of psychoanalytic theory and practice, as loss is an intrinsic part of life, encompassing the loss of an ideal professional career, a beloved individual, or other cherished entities. Freud (1912-13) initially examined this phenomenon, contending that mourning has a specific psychical function aimed at severing the survivors' memories and ambitions with the departed. Upon attaining this, the anguish subsides, accompanied by a decrease in remorse and self-reproach. Subsequent to the preliminary discourse on this psychical task, Freud (1917) posits that mourning is generally a reaction to the loss of a beloved person or an abstract notion, such as homeland, liberty, or an ideal. Conversely, melancholia is defined by prominent psychological attributes, such as profound despondency, social withdrawal, incapacity to feel affection, cessation of all activities, and a deterioration of self-worth, which presents as self-criticism and self-deprecation, culminating in a delusional anticipation of retribution. The mourning process occurs when the individual withdraws libido from the absent object. This signifies that the ego has reclaimed its autonomy and spontaneity, therefore reinstating its capacity to accept new objects. The mourning process is gradual and progressive; as noted by Pollock (1961), it serves as an adaptive mechanism aimed at achieving equilibrium between individuals and their environment. Considering this, it is evident that some individuals utilise cultural objects as a medium to articulate their emotions related to the loss of a cherished person or object, serving as a mechanism for acclimatisation to a new environment devoid of the object. According to Volkan (1972), mourners utilised certain objects, recognising their symbolic significance, although remaining oblivious to the precise meanings being symbolised. In light of the notion that an individual pursues alternative objects to alleviate the anguish of loss, it is evident that this behaviour is driven by the pleasure principle articulated by Freud (1920), which seeks to attain pleasure and evade the distress associated with the mourning process. The pursuit of alleviation from the anguish of loss may reveal the connection between the individual and the adaptive object, such as a cultural object. This adaptive purpose parallels Winnicott’s (1971c) notion of the transitional object.

Klein (1940) asserts that the mourning process in adults is a revival of early sorrow, stemming from the infant's experience of losing the mother's breast, particularly when an individual seeks an item to manage loss. Giffney (2021), referencing Klein’s theory, asserts that cultural objects utilised by individuals may symbolise the need to relive the experience of the mother’s breast, a psychical activity she terms “culture-breast”. This psychological activity reflects the individual's connection with cultural objects. This idea pertains solely to the link between the cultural object and the individual, serving as a vessel for the experiences of deprivation that one may face in life. The discourse around the utilisation of cultural objects in the mourning process and their displacements aims to alleviate suffering. However, if individuals recognise the comfort offered by the cultural object, they may fetishise it due to perceiving a reflection of the self within the object. Moreover, those who discovered solace in cultural objects may experience the possible fetishisation of these objects.

The psychoanalytic perspective attributes the roots of fetishisation of the transitional object to early interactions between infants and carers, as examined by Greenacre (1969) and Wulff (1946). The transitional object and fetish originate from an infant's selection of an object that mirrors the primary bond with the mother's breast and comfort, situated in the oral stage, which encompasses sensory experiences of scent and texture. Nonetheless, the fetish originates from the conflation of the breast and the absent penis of the mother. Winnicott (1971c) asserts that the transitional object is an infant's selected item that serves as a defence against anxiety, particularly about separation from the mother. He also states that the transitional object facilitates reality testing and engenders an illusory experience for the infant. This feeling will also appear in art, as many persons seek cultural objects to create an illusion that symbolises their connection with a loved one. Sharpe (1930) asserts that the genesis of art is a sublimation grounded in the fundamental affinity with one's parents. Conversely, Segal (1981) asserts that symbol production results from a loss, embodying a creative act that encompasses both sorrow and the entirety of the mourning process. Nevertheless, the psychoanalytic literature does not concentrate solely on the capacity to express affects throughout the mourning process in relation to cultural objects; rather, the majority of the discourse pertains to the capacity for creativity. It does not recognise the typical engagement with cultural objects until it becomes pathological, at which point individuals assert they can obsessively identify themselves within the artwork.

Upon examining the literature concerning mourning and its association with cultural objects, as well as the fetishisation of transitional objects and narcissism, it became evident that a significant gap exists in the literature regarding the conceptualisation of how the mourning process is experienced in an individual's life while employing cultural objects as a means to alleviate the anguish of loss. The discovered gap established the foundation for the three study objectives examined in chapter 2. The primary objective sought to examine the transference of mourning into art, culminating in the conclusion that artworks might convey unresolved grief and the loss of internal objects. Freud (1917) asserts that after a bereavement, the initial response involves identification with the lost object and a denial of the loss. It suggests that this can be expressed through artistic creation, leading to the conclusion that the mourner's libido has been retracted from the original objects and redirected towards new ones. The second research objective examined the fetishisation of transitional objects, revealing that an individual's favoured artwork might become excessively depended upon, hence distorting the process of mourning as a means to maintain a cohesive self. This purpose is essential to investigate, as Sperling (1963) notes that Winnicott opposed the usage of the term fetish in relation to the transitional object. The final research objective was examining the narcissistic interest in cultural objects, culminating in the conclusion that art serves as an extension of the self, mirroring the ego ideal and perhaps obstructing the mourning process. Walsh (2013a) posits that an individual's inability to meet the demands of the ego ideal results in a pathological projection of our values onto cultural objects, such as art, which can subsequently provide a pleasing reflection of ourselves.

The research objectives revealed a notable deficiency in psychoanalytic literature that offers therapeutic material concerning “common” patients in relation to cultural objects. The predominant clinical cases concerning the mourning process and its manifestations in art involve artists as patients, as discussed in chapter 3. For example, both Mr. M. and the female artist are individuals who derive their livelihood from their artistic endeavours. Both stories illustrate that they utilised their artwork in adulthood to articulate the losses experienced earlier in life. Their status as artists rendered the extensive utilisation of their creative capacities unquestioned until additional symptoms emerged, indicating an impingement on their potential to produce art. Conversely, Mr. E., who was not an artist, exemplifies that through his analysis, he cultivated the capacity to produce an artwork as a means of articulating his affects. It is important to remember that he possessed the capacity to create art prior to commencing his treatment.

Despite the limitations, investigating an individual’s capacity to engage with artwork, such as through a mourning process, is contingent upon prior experience, notwithstanding existing limits. The concept of employing transitional objects in early childhood illustrates the capacity to engage in creativity and self-exploration through other objects; nevertheless, if the environment indicates a lack of such aptitude, it may expose a pathological attachment to the object. Consequently, the individual may utilise alternative objects, such as cultural objects, to investigate aspects of fragmented self and incorporate them into art. The research indicated that the capacity to engage with cultural objects in a “healthy” manner may originate from early interactions with carers who influence the individual's ego development. This relationship will enable the capacity to encounter initial losses, such as the loss of the mother’s breast, which will influence the mourning process. The research indicated that early experiences of loss can influence an individual's ego and, subsequently, the mourning process through artwork; however, the lack of discourse in psychoanalytic literature regarding “ordinary” individuals using art for solace highlighted a limitation in the scope of this research. In light of the limited literature, the subsequent section will present several approaches and findings to clarify the mourning process and its interpretations within the context of psychoanalytic psychotherapy, aiming to address the research gap identified.

Conclusion and Recommendations

This paper has analysed how the mourning and its displacements into cultural objects can illuminate its connection to an individual’s life, as well as the capacity to utilise these objects as a constructive means to facilitate their mourning process. The literature review uncovers a significant body of research examining the mourning process and its potential manifestations across various psychoanalytic perspectives. Nevertheless, a consensus on the utilisation of the cultural objects as a container for the individual affects (Giffney 2013) has yet to be established. Nonetheless, the research offers insight into how the artwork created during a period of mourning might connect to another individual’s ego, facilitating the adoption of a new object (Freud 1917) as a means to navigate their own mourning process. Additionally, as a transitional object to facilitate navigation of the new environment in the absence of the lost object.

From a psychoanalytic perspective, the research seeks to investigate the conditions under which an individual may seek psychoanalytic treatment and reveals their intense involvement with cultural objects, offering a significant opportunity to analyse how early experiences of loss have influenced the individual’s ego. While much has been documented regarding how the mourning process stimulates creativity and artistic expression, there is a deficiency in comprehending the relationship between ordinary individuals and cultural objects. This notion aligns with Freud’s (1920) concept of the innate pursuit of pleasure. Freud (2002) asserts that the narcissistic individual, being more self-sufficient, will pursue significant satisfactions within their internal mental processes, which will then be manifested in cultural objects. The most important satisfactions in his own internal mental processes that will be transposed into cultural objects. This research reveals that the development of art throughout a mourning process serves as an individual’s attempt to evade sorrow and discover an improved self through artistic expression. The preponderance of psychoanalytic literature has examined the capacity to be creative during periods of suffering, as Khan (1977) posited that the individual who produces an item possesses the urge to convey what resides within the internal world. However, the research revealed a deficiency of literature illustrating how ordinary individuals utilise cultural objects as a medium to navigate their mourning process. According to Steiner (1988), this presents a chance to study an individual’s projective identification in the formation of narcissistic object relations, particularly when the individual confronts the unpleasant distinction between what pertains to the object and what pertains to the self. Nevertheless, psychoanalytic theories have been employed by numerous psychoanalysts and art critics to elucidate the significance of creative representations. This illustrates that the predominant body of psychoanalytic literature has focused on exploring the artist’s psychological deprivation, particularly concerning the ego and id mental processes evident in artistic creation; however, the literature review in chapter 2 elucidated a discernible gap. The research results were validated by the clinical and non-clinical materials presented in chapter 3. For example, Warick et al. (1984) elucidate Munch’s paintings as an obsessive representation of his mourning for his mother’s death, while Freud (1910) examines Leonardo da Vinci’s narcissistic defences against the sexual instincts as reflected in his intellectual and artistic manifestations.

This research aimed to provide an alternative perspective on the application of the psychoanalytic framework in treating a patient with a profound interest in cultural objects, such as artwork, in order to trace the ego formation of an adult and understand the initial experiences of loss and the relationship between the caregiver and this individual in early childhood. The psychoanalytic psychotherapy may offer a facilitating environment (Winnicott 1965) that allows individuals to articulate their internal object relations freely, akin to the expression facilitated by art. Consequently, during treatment, the discussion of cultural objects can occur without the expectation of comprehending the significance behind the artistic creation. For individuals who do not engage in artistic creation, therapy may serve the role of illusion as described by Khan (1973), allowing exploration of how cultural objects have impacted the individual’s mourning process. Additionally, it presents an opportunity to recognise previous deficiencies in the supportive environment and to facilitate new experiences within a psychoanalytic context, thereby fostering a renewed relationship with the experience of loss.

Giffney (2021) examines the utilisation of cultural objects, referring to the concept of the culture-breast, which prompted the author of this paper to further explore how the connection between cultural objects and individuals may illuminate aspects of the internal psyche, as well as the foundational relationship with the caregiver that influences the manner in which individuals’ mourning processes are projected onto other objects in subsequent life stages. Despite the demonstration provided by this research about the use of cultural objects in contemporary psychoanalytic literature, there is still a gap in understanding how mourning is experienced within these cultural objects and the portrayal of self-identity while engaging with a piece of art. The existing literature examines the broad relationship as a manner of being contained by the objects, rather than a specific understanding that a loss has been resurrected through these objects. It is essential to examine how the displacement of loss manifests in other entities and how it may facilitate the ongoing development of an individual’s ego in maturity.

This paper has offered an exploration of how the psychoanalytic framework might provide an alternative perspective on the mourning process through the utilisation of cultural objects, rather than solely through the creation of art. This research integrates psychoanalytic and social perspectives on the displacement of the mourning process into cultural objects, enhancing the understanding of how the psychoanalytic psychotherapy framework can be applied in clinical practice. It addresses cases where an adult exhibits an excessive attachment to cultural objects as a means of emotional release, which may hinder the decathexis from object loss and impede the capacity to adopt a new object necessary for a ‘normal’ mourning process. Due to the constraints of this paper, certain avenues, such as the relationship between loss and the capacity to create art, remain unexamined. Nevertheless, the author hopes that this paper has ignited interest for further investigation into the interpretation of mourning and its displacements through the use of cultural objects.