Rafael: Chapter 1-2

Chapter 1 – Literature Review

This chapter aims to delineate divergences and convergences in the available literature, thereby elucidating how individuals and artists effectively express their experiences of loss through their artworks or the relationship with artistic expressions. The process of mourning is intricate and may occur throughout an individual's life, whether because to the loss of a parent at a young age or the loss of significant entities such as a marital relationship or an ideal career. How the individuals experience the initial losses in life, and how they grieve them will determine their relationship to other objects. By observing these relationships with culture and art, the aim is to present that the relationship with cultural objects can be seen as unhealthy or healthy to support the individual to cope with the loss.

The breadth and depth of research on the topic is extensive and comprehensive coverage is beyond the scope of this paper. Due to that, this research has the objective to direct the attention to areas that helps to think psychoanalytically on the mourning process is seen in the individual’s relationship with artwork.

The distinction between mourning and melancholia, alongthe transference into the displacement of cultural objects.

This section explores the concepts of mourning and melancholia through Sigmund Freud's paper "Mourning and Melancholia" (1917). Freud's work examines the roles of mourning and melancholia within an individual's ego, providing a critical foundation for understanding these emotional states. Furthermore, the research delves into Melanie Klein's pivotal idea of the breast and its importance in the psyche of infants, which adds depth to psychoanalytic discussions surrounding introjections and projections. These concepts are relevant not only in individual psychology but also in the analysis of cultural objects, as articulated by Noreen Giffney.

Freud (1917) conceptualises mourning as an individual's response to the loss of a loved person or the absence of an intangible concept such as freedom, an object, or an ideal. Heargues that mourning involves profound departures from the typical attitude to life, allowing the individual to experience the loss. Furthermore, the ego becomes free and uninhibited once the mourning process is accomplished, providing the capacity to adopt a new object. However, suppose the mourning process is not fully completed. In this case, the individual cannot embrace a new object and perceives themselves as worthless and burdened with self-reproach, which can be interpreted as the individual’s ego. Freud referred to this long period of deep mourning as melancholia, characterised by sleeplessness and refusal of nourishment. This refusal of nourishment can represent the ego’s incapacity to adopt a new object and the lack of capacity to cope with the experience of loss. Freud claimed that one of the factors necessary for achieving mourning is the ego's ability to detach the libido from the object. This detachment from the lost object is accomplished through reality testing. Wolfenstein (1966) argues that the individual’s incapacity to adopt a new object and acknowledge the reality of loss represents the ego's strong unwillingness to abandon the libidinal attachment to the lost object. Based on Pollock's (1977) findings, a person who is grieving may avoid facing reality and instead hold on to the lost object or ideal by denying its absence or even experiencing hallucinations. This behaviour keeps the absent object or ideal alive in the person's mind.

Houlding (2015) argues that reality testing is the infant’s first encounter with others, and their ability to control others is perceived as limited. Klein (1940) posits a connection between the testing of reality in normal mourning and early processes of the mind. According to Klein, the infant’s sensation of loss is connected to their perception of losing the mother’s breast and the milk. The infant sensation of losing the mother is experienced as their uncontrollable destructive phantasies and impulses against the mother’s breast. According to Klein (1946), the infant’s destructive impulse initially focuses on the primary object, which in this case, the mother’s breast, through oral-sadistic phantasy attacks. This experience elicits persecutory fears in the infant, resulting in the belief that the infant is robbing valuable contents of the mother's body and leaving the mother’s breast in bits. Due to these infants’ destructive phantasies, the breast can be felt as a good and bad breast, whereas the good breast would be the gratifying breast, remembering the gratification of love feelings. A bad breast is understood as a frustrating breast that contains states of frustration, hatred, and persecutory anxiety. As discussed by Klein (1959), the splitting process is one of the initial actions of the ego process of projection and introjection, which occurs from the very beginning of life after birth. Introjection refers to the process by which an infant incorporates external experiences and situations into their inner reality, perceiving them as part of their own self, such as the good breast. On the other hand, the infant’s persecutory feelings are projected towards the mother’s breast, and if they are introjected as a frustrating breast or bad breast, it will damage the perception of their self. Furthermore, the simultaneous projection involves the infant's capacity to attribute their different emotions, particularly love and hate, to other individuals. Klein (1946) mentions that splitting off parts of the self and the projection into external objects, such as the mother, is considered a vital experience for normal development and normal object relations.

So far, the previous section has discussed how the experience of loss in early infancy impacts the infant’s relation to other objects. However, according to Nacu (2019), the process through which a child mourns the loss of objects in early childhood is crucial in shaping the individual's mental and emotional development, particularly with issues of separation and individuation. Nacu (2019) suggests that how a child navigates these experiences can significantly impact their ability to form healthy relationships and establish a strong sense of self. Considering how the child mourns the loss of objects, it can be transferred to a transitional object, which will support the child to understand the self in the environment. This concept can be seen in the artist’s manifestation because the artist can benefit from the object's function to elaborate on the loss and relive the object internally.

Klein (1940) would say that when an adult experiences grief, they are reliving their initial experience of mourning, which is the loss of the mother's breast. Whether the experiences are good or bad, these initial experiences will be relived and projected into the outside world. An explicit form to analyse and comprehend the concept of splitting, especially in adults, can be identified through artistic expressions, such as paintings, films, music, or literature. Considering this, it is possible to classify them as cultural objects.

Cultural objects exemplify the understanding of anindividual's relationship with the experience of loss. In her book The Culture-Breast in Psychoanalysis (2021), Noreen Giffney describes how the infant perceives the breast as an uncontrollable object and a painful reminder of dependence and need. Giffney (2021) also mentions that the breast is fundamental in psychoanalytic discourse because it is a metaphor to represent the environment context and provision, an external stimulus, and a psychical operation for projections and introjections. However, according to the infant's perception, the breast is a part object of the mother, and the infant reduces the mother to her breast functions. According to Klein (1946), the infant's attacks extend to the mother's body because the infant perceives her body as an extension of the breast, even before the mother is conceived as a complete person. Furthermore, Giffney (2021) defines culture-breast as the psychical use of cultural objects. The cultural object is the experience of how the individual perceives the world. Cultural objects can also be assimilated as containers, where the artwork can contain the individual’s perception of the world. Many artists who experienced early losses in life can project their mourning into the objects produced by them. The artist's portrayal of loss through art acts as a vessel for the artist's own experience of loss, offering a tangible representation of their affects. This allows viewers to connect with the artwork visually, empathise with the artist's expression of loss, and find their own personal connections within the artwork.

Considering the individual's attacks on objects, Abram (2021) conceptualises that an object's survival is intricately linked to its destruction by the subject. This idea posits that a cultural object, such as a work of art, manifests the artist’s experience of loss and serves as a means for them to cope with that loss. According to Abram (20221), destruction is a fundamental force, and for an object to endure, it must withstand the destructive tendencies of the individual interacting with it, even from infancy. Another example of how an individual interacts with other objects from the object loss is discussed by Lawrence Warick and Elaine Warick in their discussion about Edvald Munch's art. Warick et al.(1984) conceptualise that in some pathological grief reactions, it is possible to observe that an individual can be attached to a photograph or a beloved item from the deceased as a form to recreate the image of their lost love object. Warick would call this a “linking object.” This linking object can be identified in many artworks when it is known that the individual is still in a profound mourning process.

In summary, much of the psychoanalytic literature focuses on an individual's experience of mourning and how it manifests in their psyche and daily life. However, additional research is needed to enhance our understanding of mourning, particularly concerning how it can be displaced into cultural objects. This includes the phenomenon of individuals fetishising these objects as transitional objects to help them cope with their loss.

The distinction between the Transitional Object and the Fetish

It is essential to examine the relationship between cultural objects and Winnicott's hypothesis of transitional objects. Furthermore, it is essential to analyse how artists' creations of objects may signify fetishism. This section will elucidate the difference between the transitional object and the fetish by examining Winnicott’s concept of the transitional object in conjunction with Freud’s theory of fetishism.

Winnicott (1971b) conceptualises the idea of infants utilising an object to support them in holding on to the anxieties and fears of losing their mother. However, the object is to help the infant to comprehend the self and not the self. The object is called the transitional object, which supports the infant in ‘navigating’ between two worlds, the internal and external worlds. However, before using an object, the infant, after being born, tends to use the fist, fingers, and thumbs to stimulate the oral erotogenic zone to satisfy the instincts at that zone and in a quiet union. After a few months, the infant will demonstrate an interest in playing with dolls or other objects that the mother allows them to play with. It is possible to notice that after a while, the infants will become addicted to a chosen object. Usually, the object chosen by the infant is a soft material type, which could be a teddy bear or a piece of cloth, like a napkin or handkerchief, that can be sucked and held, followed by babbling or the first musical notes. Most of the time, the infant utilises the object to go to sleep as a defence against anxiety, especially anxiety of the depressive kind. Winnicott (1971c) considers this experience of manipulating the object, which can get dirty and smelly, as a transitional phenomena.

"To parents, the doll represents a perfect picture of the child - it's clean, it's cuddly, it's sexless, but as soon as the object is worn at all, it's dysfunctional. It begins to take on characteristics of the child itself- it smells like the child and becomes torn and dirty like real things do. It then becomes a frightening object because it starts to represent the human in a real way and that's when it's taken from the child and thrown away." (Kelley, 1991, as cited in Walsh, 2013, p. 117)

If the mother tries to clean the object by washing it, a break might occur that will destroy the meaning and value of the object to the infant. Along with this experience, Winnicott (1971b) mentions the importance of reality testing, an intermediate state between a baby’s inability and the growing ability to recognise and accept reality. Furthermore, Winnicott (1971b) posits that the illusion allows infants to create objects. In adult life, it is inherent in art and religion. However, if this illusion is forced on others who do not share the same illusion, it could be considered the hallmark of madness.

Winnicott (1971a) posits that in the clinical setting, individuals often have a deep yearning to connect with their authentic selves. They seek to navigate and understand their identities by expressing their creative experiences, whether through art, music, writing, or other forms of self-expression. However, Winnicott (1971c) mentions the individual’s capacity to relate to an object. For an object to be related to the subject, the object needs to survive the destruction provoked by the subject. For instance, the object must be authentic in the sense of being part of a shared reality and not just a bundle of projections. Projection mechanisms and identification will be part of the operation. However, the subject must need to find itself in the object. Furthermore, the capacity to use an object indicates the maturational process provided by a facilitating environment. This means the object is found in the world instead of being placed by the subject.According to Abram (2021), the infant relates to objects as a mother’s protection against how demanding the infant is. However, this relation to objects is an ego protection to allow the infant to adapt to being out of the womb. This experience of taking the object is unconscious and must happen in a good enough environment. The experience supports the infant's comprehension that the mother is a separate other, although becoming more aware of it demands time and space.

Freud (1917) suggests that object choice is related to the attachment of libido to a specific person. In his 1927 paper "Fetishism," Sigmund Freud posits that fetishism denotes an object choice wherein an individual forms an atypical connection to a particular obejct. This attachment is often experienced as a symptom of psychological distress and is accompanied by feelings of suffering. Freud (1927) posits that the relationship between object choice and fetish is a substitution for the penis, which is the mother’s penis that the infant does not want to give up. Nevertheless, there is an unawareness that the woman does not possess a penis, and fetishism is another form of demonstrating the fear of castration. However, the fear of castration can be understood further than the fear of phallus’ loss. The castration can be perceived as a general fear of loss. For example, an infant will use an object to replace the mother’s breast. According to Winnicott (1971c), this object will support the infant in overcoming the anxieties and fears of losing the mother. However, the object is to help the infant comprehend the self, not the self, which means the internal and external world. Because the fetish is unknown to other people, the individual does not disclose it and has easy access to it, where sexual satisfaction is attached to it. Freud (1908) says adults are ashamed of their phantasies because they hide from the other and cherish them in their most intimate possessions, such as producing a work of art that represents the artist’s loss and attachment to the lost object.

The subsequent section discusses the extended use of a transitional object, particularly in early childhood. However, if an adult consistently relies on such an object, it may suggest that this behavior falls into the realm of fetishism. The individual might not openly admit to using the object and may develop a strong attachment to it. This could be interpreted as a need to relive internal experiences tied to an object that they perceive as lost.

According to Greenacre (1969), the fetish and the transitional objects are both inanimate objects that an individual adopts and utilises to aid in the maintenance of a psychophysical balance when encountering stressful conditions. The fetish is typically an object that provides a sense of security and comfort. In contrast, the transitional object, as described by Winnicott, serves as a bridge to the external world and helps in the separation-individuation process in early childhood. These objects play a significant role in providing emotional support and stability during times of distress or anxiety. Also, Greenacre (1969) posits that the use of the transitional object seems to be prolonged and serves as a fetishist need. On the other hand, Wulff (1946) suggests that fetishism may be linked to the oral fixation that develops after weaning. This fixation is believed to be associated with the act of sucking before sleeping and is thought to be related to the representation of the mother's breast or body.

Losing access to a mother’s breast is a profoundly traumatic experience for an infant, serving as the initial encounter with mourning that shapes the individual's emotional development. According to Laplanche et al. (1967), trauma is a personal event that happens to an individual, which can be dated and has significant importance due to the unpleasant effects it can trigger. Due to that, many individualsmight use art expressions to reveal the experience of internal loss.

In essence, when considering Winnicott’s idea of the transitional object, it is possible to identify that using an object such as a painting or literature can support an individual in comprehending loss and the significance of that loss to the individual. However, if the individual persists in reproducing the same object many times, it may be identified as a repetition intended to demonstrate what has been forgotten. Because according to Freud (1914b), the individual repeats the forgotten in his behaviour without knowing what has been repeated.

Catharsis via the cultural object

The preceding sections have examined the mourning displacements manifested in works of art and the possiblefetishisation of the transitional object when the normal mourning process is disrupted. The following section aims to define catharsis and its manifestation in individuals through cultural objects. It also explores Freud's discussion of the cathartic method and its effects. Furthermore, the section examines Freud's pleasure principle and how it can be observed through the catharsis experienced by spectators. Additionally, this section presents the concept of the capacity of creativity and how artists perceive a sense of loss that compels them to revisit that loss through their artwork. This drive to relive the sense of loss can be interpreted as narcissism, which is discussed as an urge to feel alive again and the fear of separation evoked by the loss.

According to Laplanche et al. (1967), catharsis is a Greek word that means purification or purging. Aristotle used the word catharsis to define tragedy and pity's effect on the spectator. Freud (1906) posits that catharsis entails the release of one's own emotions through the process of 'blowing off steam'. The enjoyment experienced reveals the relief produced by a thorough discharge accompanied by a sexual excitation.

One intriguing avenue of expression in exploring the concept of mourning is through the medium of theatrical play. When an artist creates a play, they can delve into their own unconscious, allowing for a profound exploration of the complexities of loss evoked by mourning. Additionally, the audience becomes engaged in the narrative, finding ways to identify with the characters portrayed on stage, which can evoke a strong emotional response. This experience of emotional connection with the characters and the subsequent emotional release in the audience is commonly referred to as catharsis.

Breuer and Freud adopted the term cathartic method to conceptualise the idea of an abreaction to trauma. For a brief period, Freud used the cathartic method with hypnosis; however, he stopped using it and preferred to suggest to patients that the symptom did not exist to provoke recollection by bringing back to the field of consciousness the experiences that underlie the symptoms. Freud (1914b) describes how Breuer's cathartic method closely focused on the specific events that led to the formation of symptoms. It also entailed persistent efforts to recreate the mental processes to bring about their release through conscious operations. Vives (2011) asserts that catharsis involves the paradoxical and mysterious transformation of disagreeable feelings into pleasure. According to Freud (1920), the pleasure principle is a primary mechanism of the mental apparatus, serving as a means of self-preservation for the organism amidst the challenges of the external world. Furthermore, Freud (1920) posits that under the influence of the ego’s self-preservation instincts, the pleasure principle is replaced by the reality principle. This means the ego’s secondary processes, such as perception, thinking in word presentation, memory, reality-testing, and control of motility. Based on the reality principle, Freud (1911) suggests that art unites the pleasure and reality principles. According to Freud, an artist initially turns away from reality because they are unable to forgo their instinctual satisfaction, which demands and allows the fulfilment of erotic and ambitious wishes in the realm of fantasy. However, the artist can return to reality from this world of fantasy by utilising their special talents to transform fantasies into a new kind of truth that others appreciate as valuable reflections of reality. Nevertheless, it is only possible because other individuals share the same artist’s dissatisfaction with reality, and because of that, the results stem from the replacement of the pleasure principle by the reality principle. Freud (1908) conceptualises the creation of a fantasy world by comparing a creative writer to a child at play. This analogy suggests that the writer constructs a serious fantasy world filled with intense emotions distinctly separated from reality. The primary disparity between the child at play and the writer lies in the use of language. Acknowledging the crucial role of language in fostering creativity and articulating mourning or loss, Khan (1973) asserts that language embodies the ego’s capacities of both patient and analyst to attentively create a space for illusion in the analytical setting. Language transcends mere recollection, reporting, or listening; it serves as a medium for creativity and profound expression.

Winnicott (1971a) emphasises the importance of space and creativity, asserting that cultural experience exists in the potential space between the individual and the environment. Early life experiences heavily influence this capacity to perceive space. When observing an artist's expression, it's important to consider Winnicott's (1986) idea that living creatively is a universal need, and there is no special requirement. Living creatively strengthens the feeling of being alive and true to ourselves. Because of the individual’s necessity to feel themselves alive, the individual tends to project their libido towards other external objects with the purpose of finding themselves through others. Considering the individual’s necessity of imposing oneself on others, Smith (1988) posits this omnipotence is a result of narcissism.

Furthermore, Gosmann (2019) says the main issue with narcissism is the state of losing touch with oneself, as the ego tries to compensate for the loss of self through a negative identification and positive projection into an object that the individual perceives as ‘good’. Even though the individual is not conscious that the object does not exist anymore, the relation to object loss represents returning to the ego. However, the individual tries to relate to a new object to diminish the sense of loss and create a sense of continuity of self in the new object. Freud (1914a) posits that the individual libidinal cathexis back to their ego implies a narcissistic withdrawal of the libido away from any new object attachment that is referred to as object-libido. This withdrawal of the libido is perceived as melancholia. Artists express that they are not forgetting or letting go of precious aspects of the lost object because they perceive themselves as part of it. Smith (1988) refers to Freud’s concept that identification with the lost object is a pathogenic factor driven by the drive for separation and autonomy in melancholia. Also, one of the main reasons for narcissism is the prevention of the progression of separation. Segal et al. (1991) interpret Freud’s concept of narcissism as the individual's relationship with their own body as a sexual object. In contrast, Segal also notes that Klein refers to the retreat from reality toward an idealized internal object as “narcissistic states”.

According to Han (2017), one of the narcissistic maladies is depression (melancholia), which derives from an overwrought, pathologically distorted self-reference. Han (2017) posits that the narcissistic-depressive subject has exhausted itself and worn itself down, which leads to a feeling of being abandoned by the other. This experience forces the subject to plunge into itself; on the other hand, Eros pulls the subject out of itself toward the other. Eros provides the possibility to experience the otherness of the other, which leads the one out of a narcissistic inferno. Considering Han’s idea of Eros as a salvation to the subject from the self-reproach and lack of nourishment, the artist tries to convey the experience of loss by creating objects.

In summation, it is crucial to ascertain whether the creativity reflects a repetition of what the artist has forgotten regarding the significance of the lost object, and whether they endeavour to internally revive the object by immersing themselves in its production. This may result in narcissism and an impingement to move forward to adopt new objects. The artist’s new creations frequently resonate with others, eliciting sentiment of catharsis. Although the artwork is not intended to induce catharsis, it facilitates emotional release as individuals engage with it.

Chapter Summary

This chapter has investigated the relationship between mourning and its displacements into cultural object, like art. The chapter also examined how the disruptions in the mourning process manifest in the transitional objects and the associated potential ‘symptoms’, including narcissistic states. The work of art was identified as a possible means for emotional release, facilitating a cathartic experience.  

Based on the discourse around the subjects addressed in the literature review, three distinct research objectives have emerged. The first research objective is to examine the mourning displacements into cultural objects. The literature review indicated that disruptions in the mourning process may hinder individuals’ ability to adopt new objects. Cultural objects may assist them in navigating their mourning process.The second research objective is the fetishisation of the transitional object. This indicates the identification of excessive and prolonged use of the transitional object in the individual. The third research objective is the cathartic experience via cultural object. The discussion indicated that the sensation of loss may elicit a fear of castration in the individuals, prompting them to project their emotions onto external objects, such as cultural objects. This may be construed as a narcissistic state stemming from the inability to confront object loss and the compulsion to evade the discomfort associated with the pain of loss. These individuals may utilise art as a medium to express their emotions, aiding them in the mourning process.

Chapter 2 – Theory and Research Objectives

This chapter offers a comprehensive examination of the subjects discussed in chapter one to fulfil the established research objectives. The domains of mourning, transitional items, catharsis, and narcissism are expansive fields of inquiry that are ever developing. The first research object is the initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork. To provide insight, a definition of mourning is required and how the displacement in the objects is perceived by the current psychoanalytic literature. The second research objective is the transitional object fetishised by individuals. This suggests that when a person employs a work of art akin to a transitional object, as observed in children, to alleviate the pain of loss, excessive involvement may lead to the fetishisation of the cultural object. The third and final research objective elucidates how narcissistic states manifest in the relationship with art and the potential catharsis perceived as a medium to release emotions, while also addressing the challenges encountered by individuals who have positioned themselves as self-idealised objects. This may cause animpingement in interactions with external objects. The objectives will be analysed to comprehend the correlation between the mourning process and its enactments via cultural objects.

First research objective: The initial mourning displacements into cultural objects, such as artwork

This section begins by outlining the concepts of mourning and melancholia as delineated by Freud (1917), highlighting that a natural mourning process is advantageous for individuals, allowing the ego to be liberated and facilitating the adoption of new objects. Nevertheless, other scholars, such Melanie Klein and Noreen Giffney, were used to elucidate the discourse on the displacement of mourning, particularly in relation to cultural objects.

The psychoanalytic literature suggests that Freud discussed the topic of mourning prior to his 1917 paper Mourning and Melancholia. Freud initially discussed the mourning process in the essays on Totem and Taboo (1912-13), asserting that mourning has a distinct psychical task which aims to detach the survivors' memories and aspirationsfrom the deceased. Upon achieving this, the pain diminishes, accompanied by a reduction in remorse and self-reproach. In January 1914, Freud presented his paper on mourning and melancholia to Ernest Jones and presented it to the Vienna Psycho-Analytical Society on December 30^th of that year. Several authors speculate that Freud’s exploration to discuss on the mourning process is connected to Jung’s resignation from psychoanalytic associations, suggesting that Freud’s formal conceptualisation of mourning may have been stemmed from his grief over Jung’s loss and the significance Jung held for him. Freud (1917) asserts in his concluding paper about mourning and melancholia that mourning is typically a response to the loss of a cherished individual, or an abstract concept, such as fatherland, freedom, or an ideal. On the other hand, melancholia is characterised by significant mental features, including deep despondency, withdrawal from the external world, inability to experience love, suppression of all activity, and a decline in self-esteem that manifests as self-reproaches and self-denigration, ultimately leading to a delusional expectation of punishment. One reason the mourning process functions is when the individual withdraws the libido from the object which no longer exists.This indicates that the ego has regained its freedom and spontaneity, thereby restoring its capacity to embrace a new object. Freud (1917) contends that the retraction of libido is not an instantaneous process, but rather one that, akin to mourning, unfolds slowly and progressively. Pollock (1961) asserts that the cathexis of new objects is not inherently a component of the mourning process, but rather a measure of its level of resolution.

Psychoanalytic literature suggests that creativity in the creation or adoption of a new object frequently occurs in the setting of mourning. The individual will attempt to re-experience the affects linked to the object-loss through a new external object, in this case through a work of art. The mourning process mostly evokes the earlier experiences of separation from the mother, and the anxieties attached to it. Because of that the mourning process is painful, however the degree of suffering will be dependent on the initial reactions to object-loss that the individual faced as an infant. This concept is grounded in Klein’s (1940) theory regarding the relationship between the reality-testing in normal mourning and early processes of the mind. The external reality, devoid of object-loss, is faced by the reality-principle articulated by Freud (1911). This indicates there is a consciousness of the external world independent of the absent object, which is observed and recalled. Pollock (1961) asserts that an ego that has matured to perceive the reality distinctively discriminate objects will mourn differently than an ego that is poorly integrated and immature. The individual experiences the mourning due to the loss of an object that was previously cathected, and through this process, the ego is developed.

An individual creating artwork to convey their mourning can be observed to have the ego functioning under the pleasure principle. This indicates, according to Freud (1911) hypothesis, that the psychical activity retracts from any event that may induce displeasure with the objective of attainingpleasure. Nonetheless, the individual’s primary motive in creating the work of art is to alleviate suffering, and through this creation, the aim is to discharge the libido into a newobject that aids the individual in processing the loss of the original object. The creation of artwork may serve as a means to mitigate the anguish of loss; however, as Deutsch (1937) asserts, attempt to escape the pain of grief yields only a transient benefit, as the imperative to mourn remains ingrained in the psychic apparatus. Conversely, Freud (1916) contends that the aesthetic and ideal qualities of a work of art or intellectual accomplishment should not diminish in value due its time constraints. However, the worth of this beauty and perfection is solely dictated by its relevance to our emotional experiences, rendering it unnecessary for survival beyond our existence and thus independent of absolute duration. Bollas (1978) posits the aesthetic moment embodies a profound rapport between subject and object, granting the individual a creative illusion of harmony with an object,thereby eliciting an existential memory. Existential, in contrast to cognitive memory, is expressed not through visual or abstract thinking, but through the affects of being. Nonetheless, Pollock (1961) asserts that the retention of the object as a figure that can be addressed and visualised, along with the denial of its demise, obstructs the mourning process.On the other hand, Sharpe (1930) posits that 'excellent' art serves a self-preservative role. The individual endeavours to produce an artwork to exert control over the object, signifying the intention to mould it. It clearly demonstrates the individual’s omnipotence, ignited by the intolerable pain of loss. This omnipotence arises from the internalised object and the individual’s thoughts of destructiveness regarding the perceived object-loss. Sharpe (1930) asserts the artist creates the art to externalise the hostile parent which was internalised at the oral level. Consequently, the artist creates the artwork to externalise the hostile imagine and to exert control over it.

The previous section has outlined the mourning process,the genesis of artwork, and its earliest displacements. This section outlines the work of art, categorised as cultural objects, and their interpretation through psychoanalytic literature, referencing Klein’s theory on the infant’s perception of the mother’s breast and Giffney’s concept of the culture-breast. This latter refers to the individual’s relationship with cultural objects.

Giffney (2021) asserts that cultural objects, such as art, serve the function of a breast. She articulates this concept through the notion of culture-breast, which interprets thebreast-function in accordance with Melanie Klein's theory and defines it as the psychical use made of cultural objects by the individuals. Klein (1946) posits that the infant’s oral-sadistic impulses directed at the mother’s breast are active from the beginning of life. These impulses during times of frustration and anxiety are exacerbated, and the infant may perceive the mother’s breast has been left in bits. This indicates that the splitting mechanism is established, which will split the breast between the good and bad breast, corresponding to gratifying and frustrating breasts, respectively. Klein asserts that the splitting mechanism is among the earliest ego mechanisms and defences against anxiety, wherein love is directed towards the gratifying, while states of frustration, hatred and persecutory anxiety are associated to the frustrating breast.  Because of these destructive impulses are felt by the infant towards the mother’s breast, the other ego’s primary aim of overcoming anxiety is linked to the introjection and projectionmechanisms. This means the infant will introject the good breast and project its persecutory parts onto the mother. However, the breast serves also as a reminder of its uncontrollable nature to the infant, and the infant’s dependence and necessity of it.

Giffney (2021) posits that the culture-breast operates as a part-object within the psyche, with external cultural objectsemployed for introjections and projections, an unconscious process that starts in childhood and persists into adulthood. Additionally, it involves the engagement with and interpretation of cultural objects. Cultural objects serve as a narrative for holding the projections of unbearable experiences that the mind cannot consciously endure. The psychical use of cultural objects can be likened to the mother’s breast function. Nonetheless, Giffney also notes the cultural object functions as a container for the individual. This indicates the cultural object is projected through projective identification, wherein the individual projects their experiences onto the cultural object (such as writing a book or reading a poem). The object absorbs and processes the overwhelming aspects of the experience, subsequently presenting it to the individual in a transformed manner that can be re-introjected by the individual in a tolerable way. On the other hand, another way to mourn and ‘give up’ the breastis creating new objects, such as art. According to Segal (1981) the symbol formation, which is possible in art creation, is the outcome of a loss. This signifies a creative act including both the pain and the entirety of mourning. She also states that when psychic reality is perceived and distinguished from external reality, the symbol is separated from the object; it is regarded as a creation of the self and can be utilised freely by the self.

In essence, the mourning process is a gradual and painful process that individuals undergo, which can be alleviated by engaging with cultural objects as a means of adopting new objects. However, excessive utilisation of the cultural object renders the process of mourning unhealthy. The individual utilises cultural objects just to display their persecutory anxiety and the painful idea of no longer experiencing object loss. The individual is attempting to re-experience the object rather than allowing for the restoration of previously internalised object. Nimroody (2014), posits that creativity serves as a sublimatory endeavour, facilitating the expression and reconfiguration of grief through the remembrance of the deceased, in stark contrast to a rigid, stereotypical form of creativity characterised by repetitive actions aimed at mitigating painful affect, which permits minimal constructive mourning of the loss.

Second research objective: How the Transitional Object is fetishised by the individual

​The subsequent section will examine the correlation between transitional objects and fetishism, particularly in regard to artwork, with a specific emphasis on the theories of Donald Winnicott and Sigmund Freud. This section intends to discuss the fetishisation of the transitional object in art by adding the perspectives of other authors to support the research.

​According to Winnicott (1971c) the transitional object is the infant's initial encounter with an object perceived as a 'not-me' possession. This object signifies a segment of the external environment that exists beyond the infant. The intriguing feature is that the infant may fabricate the object from an ordinary piece of fabric, such as a blanket. The formation of the object enables the infant to traverse between the internal and external realms. Wright (2009b) asserts that the transitional object is a subjective component of the infant that symbolises the recollection of earlier experiences with the mother. The author notes that individuals invest themselves inthe object and subsequently recognise their identity via it, rendering the object significant to them. The relationship with the transitional object is crucial to the infant as it facilitates the development of the ego and the sense of self, which has the capacity to transform the infant’s internal and external worlds. Bollas (2018) refers to the capacity for transformation as the transformational object. Bollas posits that an adult individual seeking for the transformational object aims to recollect an early object experience, not through cognitive means but existentially – via profound affective experience – associated with cumulative transformational experiences of the self. Considering this concept, one may argue that an individual, particular an artist, attempts to elicit and convey the experience of ego memories related to transformations while creating a work of art. The artist seeks not just to effect change via the creation of art but also to represent their internal world and affects. Bollas (1978) posits that the quest for the transformational object constitutes an interminable remembrance pursuit for an entity in the future that is rooted in the past. The individual endeavouring to produce a cultural object, such as painting, seeks to depict their internal world and their relationship to the object, unconsciously aims to evoke earlier life experiences, particularly those involving the primary caregiver, typically the mother. This creation assiststhe individual in traversing the feeling of loss. The attempt to create an object that represents the earlier experience with the primary caregiver, usually is evoked when the individual suffers a loss, for instance, a loss of a loved one.

Coulter (2016) posits that when considering the artist's expression, the artist must have a sense of reality, a connection to their inner experiences, and an engagement with the materials used in their artwork. Additionally, the artist should infuse their work with deeply personal emotions encompassing both the 'ugly' and the 'beautiful.' According to Segal (1981), the artist is not focused on creating beautiful or aesthetically pleasing forms. Instead, the artist is engaged in re-creating a damaged internal world, and the quality of the resulting form will depend on how successfully the artist accomplishes this task.  Most of the artist’s creations pertain to the process of mourning or the experience of an object-loss; hence, the artist prioritises the emotional impact of the final piece over its aesthetics qualities. This piece serves as an auxiliary object to internalise the object experience and as a medium between the artist and the viewer. Wright (2009a) posits that the art object serves a conduit between two distinct subjects. Although the artist’s primary drive may have been self-restoration, which the artwork ultimately transcends this self-contained objective and serves as a medium for significant connection with others.

Taken into consideration the individual’s creation of an object, and particularly the relation to the object, Winnicott (1971d) in The Use of an Object and Relating Through Identifications discusses the individual’s capacity to relate to the object. In Winnicott’s perspective, the object-relation facilitates specific alterations in the subject’s self, referred as ‘cathexis’. The object acquires meaning, and the mechanisms of projection and identification function, allowing the subject to be located within the object. However, Walsh (2013a) posits that the object in use is, in a sense, cleansed of projections, allowing the subject to perceive it as a genuine object rather than as a reflection of oneself.

So far, the transitional object has been discussed as an object that helps the infant to create the initial sense of relatedness, especially with the support of an object that resembles the relation to the mother. The cases discussed were based on experiences of a ‘good-enough mother’. This means the primary caregiver’s active adaption to the infant’s needs which lessens gradually according to the infant’s growing ability. Nevertheless, the subsequent section will discuss the cases when the transitional object was ‘created’ based on a ‘not good-enough mother’ experiences, characterised by a deprivation of nurturing and an inability to tolerate frustration. Even with ‘good-enough mothering’, there exists anopportunity to tolerate frustration, which is essential for the ego development.

Freud (1927) posits that the choice of a fetish results from a sexual impression frequently seen in early childhood, serving as a substitute for the penis, specifically the woman’s penis or mother’s penis, of which that is oblivious to the mother’s lack thereof. Furthermore, Freud says the fetish is also associated with the fear of castration and serves as a defence against it. Greenacre (1969) asserts that the transitional object and fetish diverge in their correlation with aggressiveness. The transitional object highlights a transient construct that assists the infant in the initial phases of development, foresting a sense of reality and the formation of individual identity. It is beneficial for tracking growth and expansion. Conversely, the fetish acts as a remedy for a deficiency in the genital area of the body image. The fetish is fundamentally associated with the castration anxiety and the quest for the maternal penis. However, in cases of fetish in young child it can be represented as a substitute for the mother’s body, and particularly the mother’s breast. Volkan (1972) asserts that childhood fetishism serves as a pathological defence against maternal separation at pre-oedipal stages and may or may not culminate in adult fetishism. Conversely, Balint (1935) contends that an individual can only be deemed a fetishist if they do not require a sexual partner, but solely a fetish, and if their sexual activity is not aimed at the act itself.

Walsh (2013a) drawing on Winnicott’s description of the transitional object, differentiates the transitional object from the fetish object. The first pertains to the essentiality of a healthy illusion, whereas the second concerns ‘the delusion of a maternal phallus’, which results in pathology. Greenacre (1970) also draws a differentiation between the transitional object from the fetish object. Greenacre asserts that the transitional object symbolises not just the mother’s breast and body but also the entirety of the maternal environment, as it is perceived in conjunction with feelings from the infant’s own body. Nonetheless, if there exists a disrupted relationship with the mother, resulting in delayed individuation, the infant will exhibit precocity and independence, culminating in the emergence of an infantile fetish. This means the fetish is the product of need for reparation. The artist aims to produce a tangible artwork that serves as a readily accessible reminder of the object's intrinsic vitality. This might be likened to fetishism, as the fetish object serves as a reminder of the maternal phallus and the enjoyment of revisiting earlier sexual experiences, including thumb and breast sucking, as well as the manipulation of body parts during infancy. Freud (1905)posits that all children are polymorphously perverse, indicating that sexual pleasure extends beyond the genitals.

Walsh (2013b) posits that the connection to fetishism constitutes a symbolic process within the unconscious, characterised by an excessive investment in an object, primarily through visual means, particularly photography, due to its capacity for analogical fixation and preservation of an object, individual, or scene that is now temporally distant.However, Adams (2013) asserts that the fetish as a sexual object represents a displacement from one object to another, rather than a substitution for an internalised absent object. It is essential to recognise that the objective of the artist, or a ‘regular’ individual, in making art is often an unconscious effort to sublimate the sensation of loss, which entails an attempt to restore the lost object or achieve restoration, so alleviating the anxiety. However, upon completion of the artwork, the individual may overly utilise the piece to mourn the loss, thereby transforming the object into a fetish.

In summary, Winnicott defines the transitional object as an object, such as blanket or teddy bear, that an infant adopts from available objects to support in navigating between ‘me’ and ‘not-me’, to tolerate the separation from the mother, and which is progressively decathected. This experience will assist the individual in retaining memories of the transitional object without repression, which proves beneficial later in life when faces with deprivation. However, when the excessive use of a new adopted object, such as a work of art, is seen in cases that the individual utilises as form to grief, it may be considered as fetish. Nonetheless, Sperling (1963) contends that the pathological mourner, who excessively utilises objects, isanalogous to the child who excessively used the transitional object in childhood, which elicited a type of childhood fetish.

Third research objective: Narcissism and thecathartic impressions on artwork

The subsequent part intends to present Freud's notion of narcissism, building upon the concepts previously articulated by Havelock Ellis and Paul Näcke. Freud's concept of narcissism derives from the term Narzissismus, coined by Näcke, which reflects on Ellis' interpretation of the Narcissus figure and its connection to autoeroticism. Freud originally credited the term narcissism to Paul Näcke; however, in a footnote added in 1920 to Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), he acknowledged his error and stated that the phrase should have been given to Havelock Ellis.

Prior to exploring Freud's notion of narcissism, it is essential to comprehend the origin of the term. Narcissus is included in a poem within the narrative of Echo and Narcissus, found in book three of Ovid's Metamorphoses. Narcissus contemplates his reflection in the river, as Echo, his admirer, observes. Narcissus, offspring of the river deity Cephissus and the naiad Liriope, was believed to possess a prolonged lifespan provided if he refrained from observing his own reflection. Ellis (1927) asserts that the image of Narcissus was inherently intended to symbolise the self-absorption of young individuals who had not yet experienced romantic love for another of the opposite sex. Ellis suggests that the idea of Narcissus represents a mental disposition that might be described as autoerotic, and notes that the term narcissism originated from Paul Näcke, with whom Ellis corresponded, who coined the German term Narzissismus to denote the auto-erotism outlined by Ellis. Gossman (2019) posits that Narcissus’s fundamental issue, and thus the essence of narcissism, is the state of being estranged from oneself.

Freud (1914a) posits that the term narcissism, derived from Paul Näcke’s concept, refers to an individual’s disposition to regard their own body in the same manner as one would regard the body of a sexual object; specifically, the person derives sexual pleasure from observing, caressing and fondling their own body, culminating in complete gratification from these actions. For Freud, the notion of narcissism pertains to the withdrawal of libido from the external world, redirecting it towards the ego. Another issue that may cause an individual to forfeit interest in external matters is organic pain and discomfort. Freud (1914a) posits that the afflicted individual retracts libidinal cathexes onto their own ego and subsequently redistributes them upon recovery. This approach pertains to the concept of the ego ideal, which Freud (1914a) suggests is analogous to the infantile ego that embodies all perfections. The emergence of the ego ideal occurs when an individual's libidinal development experiences disruption, prompting the individual to select themselves as a love-object, rather than the mother. Freud (1914a) posits that those who regard themselves as a love-object exhibit a sort of object-choice classified as narcissistic. The development of the ideal amplifies the demands of the ego and serves as the primary catalyst for repression. On the other hand, sublimation provides an avenue through which the ego's wants can be satisfied without resorting to repression. Freud (1914a) posits that sublimation is a process related to object-libido, wherein the impulse redirects itself towards a goal distinct from, and distant from, sexual enjoyment. Freud (1915) asserts that repression entails the diversion of some thoughts or memories, keeping them distant from conscious. Nevertheless, Sharpe (1930) contends that art is a sublimation grounded in the fundamental affinity with one's parents. This identification represents a mystical integration of the parents, a psychical occurrence that parallels long-repressed experiences. For example, the destructive attacks on the mother’s breast. Klein (1946) discusses these destructive attacks are associated with the infant's sense of omnipotence.Nonetheless, Kohut (1966) posits that the idealisation of the parental imago is a direct extension of the child's initial narcissism, with the cognitive representation of the idealised parent evolving alongside the child's cognitive development. Moreover, Freud (1914a) asserts that idealisation is a process pertaining to the object, whereby that object is magnified and elevated in the mind without any change to its inherent nature.

The previous section sought to elucidate the origins of narcissism as articulated by Freud. This indicates a withdrawal of the individual's libido from the external world, redirecting it towards their inner ego. Nevertheless, the individual has idealised an ego-ideal that embodies all perfections and has also idealised the parental figure. The art was briefly mentioned as reflecting a narcissistic stance, stemming from the idealisation of the parental figure. The following part will examine the concept of catharsis, art, and its association with a narcissistic stance.

Freud (1911) asserts that art enables a distinctreconciliation between the principles of pleasure and reality. On one side, an artist is an individual who eschews reality due to an inability to forgo the instinctual satisfaction that the creation of art necessitates, thereby permitting the unrestrained expression of the erotic and ambitious desires within the realm of phantasy. Conversely, the artist utilises unique talents to find the way back to reality from the world of phantasy, demonstrating the truth of a new kind, which is esteemed by others as a valuable representations of reality. For instance, Freud (1908) posits that a creative writer engages in activities like to those of a child at play. The writer constructs a realm of phantasies, investing substantial emotions, yet distinctly distinguishing it from reality.However, an individual in a narcissistic state lacks the capacity to see external reality, since it has been constructed as a self-sufficient realm. These persons may encounter challenges in establishing a healthy relationship with cultural object, such as art. If these persons are producing artwork, they may express only the aspects of themselves with which they are at ease, reflecting an idealisation of their ego. This encapsulates Freud's (1920) concept of the pleasure principle, which pertains to individuals' evasion of discomfort and the pursuit of pleasure. The individual’s relationship with art, such as creating or using it, can be interpreted as an enactment of earlier life experiences that the individuals need to work through.

For instance, an individual can achieve emotional release through theatre. This indicates that the individual can empathise with the characters’ emotions in the drama or tragedy and may express them in a cathartic manner. According to Turri (2015), Aristotle’s theory of catharsis is the most ancient and contentious hypothesis regarding the impact of the theatrical experiences on the audience. Whichpertains to the purification of the emotions (i.e. their perfection within the mind) or purification of the mind from the emotions (i.e. their abreaction from the mind). Freud and Breuer conceptualise catharsis as purgation. Freud (1945) asserts the individual’s enjoyment of a theatrical experience is predicated on an illusion, mostly because their own pain is alleviated by the knowledge that another is performing and enduring on stage in their stead. Secondly, ultimately, it is merely a game that poses no harm to their personal security. This allows the individuals to revel as a ‘great man’ and release tension in all directions. Pedder (1977) contends that individuals perceive the actors in a play as genuine people while also recognising them as the characters they embody. They suspend disbelief and tolerate the paradox. In a psychotherapy session, a ‘facilitating environment’, according to Winnicott’s theory, is established for the patient to enact their affects, which may be experienced through transference, allowing for their release. Turri (2015) notes that a tendency for dramatic enactments is acknowledged as inherent and intrinsic to human development. It is regarded as the primordial mode of meaning-making in humans. Furthermore, it is acknowledged that such dramatization serves as a source of pleasure, making it challenging to disengage from its allure.

Alexander (2003) observes that when a narcissistic patient weeps, the feeling of crying may contradict the concept of having a ‘good cry’. This can signify a cathartic experience that provides relief. However, in some instances, the weeping seems contrived and cyclical, like a performance of hollow sorrow. This exemplifies that an individual who develops or utilises a cultural object, such as art, shares a comparable experience to that of a tearless cry. Which means the individual tries to find oneself in the art without experiencing the cathartic moment that enables to release the feelings repressed and demonstrates the poverty of the emotional tie between the narcissistic and the objects. The referenced case can might be interpreted as individuals crafting their own performance, wherein they exert their omnipotence over others and orchestrate their own narrative.

In summary, this section has sought to explore narcissism and its influence on cultural objects. The part indicated that the narcissistic individual may struggle to express their emotions owing to their self-idealization. These individuals may appear theatrical and indifferent to their environment, suggesting that they have chosen them as object-choices to shield themselves from repressed feelings triggered by an object loss. Moreover, research suggests that these persons may struggle to engage with cultural objects in a constructive way, thereby hindering their ability to achieve catharsis and release their emotions. Although, these individuals might seek to create or relate to art to avoid pain and pursue pleasure.However, the grandiose exhibited by these individuals constrains their ability to experience emotional releasethrough the relationship with cultural objects. The therapy environment may offer them the context and resources to examine the affects via transference.

Chapter Summary

In summary, the research findings indicate a correlation between the mourning process and its expressions throughcultural objects, highlighting the excessive use of transitional objects, which may lead to fetishisation and manifestations of narcissistic tendencies during mourning that impede the cathartic experience derived from the artwork. The initial section of this chapter examined the mourning process as a‘normal’ prolong and gradual process, facilitating the ego’s uninhibition to enable the capacity to adopt new objects. The chapter examined ‘the new object’ as transitional objects to be used as a mechanism for coping with the object loss; however, it was discussed that prolonged use of these objects may result in fetishisation by the individual. Moreover, excessive dependence on these objects, coupled with the ego’s incapacity to embrace new objects, may lead the individual to project their self-idealisation onto the cultural objects, therebyobstructing emotional release.

This chapter delineates that mourning displacements onto cultural objects, as coping mechanisms for loss, necessitate observation due to the potential for excessive use of theseobjects. Conversely, several authors contend that mourning can catalyse a creative process (Bollas 1978; Nimroody 2014; Sharpe 1930), with artwork serving as a manifestation of an individual’s internal life experiences, wherein destructive impulses from childhood may be projected (Klein 1940; Giffney 2021). In the psychoanalytic literature, thepredominant concept of mourning is the process that enables the ego to feel liberated and unrestrained in its capacity to engage with external objects (Freud 1912-13, 1917). A severe mourning can result in melancholia, hindering the acceptance of new objects and the processing of object loss. The connection between mourning and other displacements, such as those onto cultural objects, is constrained. Winnicott(1971c) posits that objects embraced by the infant might facilitate them to navigate between internal and external world, to experience the sense of me and not me, which were named as transitional objects. However, it is not identified as a technique for coping with the loss of the infant’s experience of loss, for instance, the dependence on the mother. Theinfant’s transitional object may be fetishised due to its resemblance to maternal tenderness and early instances ofsexual excitation (Greenacre 1969, 1970; Sperling 1963; Wulff1946). However, the discourse around the fetishisationof the transitional object is not very expensive, particularly in relation to artistic endeavours (Walsh 2013). This also suggests that the discourse is limited by the potential for heightened self-idealisation reflected in the objects and the obstruction of emotional release.

The forthcoming chapter will present clinical case illustrations that integrate both clinical and extra-clinical material. This investigation will focus on the potential displacement mourning onto cultural objects and their relationship to individual’s psyche. This approach means does not merely serve as means to ‘discharge’ the affects but also demonstrates that a work of art can act as a vessel for individual emotions and to demonstrate the quality of this relationship. In alignment with the psychoanalytic objectivesof this paper, the theoretical frameworks proposed by Freud (1917) and Winnicott (1971c) will be employed, particularly their conceptualizations of mourning process and transitional objects, and their relevance to the goals of psychotherapy.